facts should be recognized the issue has been extensively deliberated for over thirty years in the US and the power of audio-visual media has been repeatedly affirmed. The same conclusion has been emerging more recently in the much different institutional and historical setting of Europe. Further deliberations in this area might seek to emulate recent successes in theology, such as the Lutheran-Catholic statement on justification or Pope Paul IIs actions and statements in Jerusalem. Nonetheless, the above analysis of the economics of human attention indicates that prospects for similar successes in broadcasting law- deliberation clarifying and changing policy positions-are rather low I. Time with Media in Everyday life How a population allocates its time deserves more consideration from business persons, policy-analysts, and policy-makers. Time is widely thought to be an important empirical measure of attention. The quality of politics, and the fortunes of particular politicians, depends significantly on the extent of public attention. For businesses, attention is a prerequisite for a sale. From a macroeconomic perspective, services are growing in importance. Services are often denominated in time, and the consumption of services is typically much more time dependent than the consumption of goods. Time may be more mportant than money Adults in high-income countries have gained significant additional discretionary time over the past seventy-five years. Discretionary time is time remaining after time spent on paid work, family care, personal care(sleeping, eating, hygiene, and grooming ), and associated travel. Methodologically sophisticated time budget surveys in the Us show that average discretionary time for persons ages 18-64 rose from 34. 8 hours per week in 1965 to 41.0 hours per week in 1995. Based on more fragmentary evidence, discretionary time for a male household head rose 220% in the US from 1880 to 1995. 4 These trends, along with other data, indicate that in the mid-1920s adults in the US probably had about 26 hours of discretionary time per week. Thus over seventy years philosophy, particularly his discussion of Sophists. Stewart, Matthew, The truth about everything (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1997) Ontheformerseehttp://lutheranworld.org/speciaLevents/justificatioN/welcome.En.html.Onthelatter see, for example, Speech of Pope John Paul Il, Visit to the Yad Vashem Museum(23 March 2000), on the webathttp://www.vatican.va_/holyfather/john_paulii/travels/documents/hfjp-iispe_20000323yad vashem-mausoleum en html E.g., among lovers, lawyers, and lobbyists Robinson, John P. and Geoffrey Godbey, Time for life: the surprising ways Americans use their time 2nd ed, (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), p. 339. Holding demographic factors constant, discretionary time rose about an additional three quarters of an hour. Fogel, Robert William, The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism( Chicago and London: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 184. Discretionary time is projected to rise 24% from 1995 to 2040.Id. An noted infra, discretionary time grew 220% in the US from 1880 to 1995, and about 18% from 1965 to 1995. These trends suggest about 22 hours of discretionary time in 1925. However, discretionary time probably grew significantly faster from 1880 to 1925 than from 1925 to 1965. Weekly hours of paid work fell about 1 l hours from 1880 to 1925, as compared to a reduction of about 5.5 hours from 1925 to 1965 See Historical Statistics of the United States, series D-627, D-589, D-593, and D-573. Other evidence suggests that hours of housework did not fall significantly from the 1920s to the early 1960s(robinson, p
11 facts should be recognized: the issue has been extensively deliberated for over thirty years in the US and the power of audio-visual media has been repeatedly affirmed. The same conclusion has been emerging more recently in the much different institutional and historical setting of Europe. Further deliberations in this area might seek to emulate recent successes in theology, such as the Lutheran-Catholic statement on justification or Pope Paul II’s actions and statements in Jerusalem.38 Nonetheless, the above analysis of the economics of human attention indicates that prospects for similar successes in broadcasting law – deliberation clarifying and changing policy positions – are rather low. III. Time with Media in Everyday Life How a population allocates its time deserves more consideration from business persons, policy-analysts, and policy-makers. Time is widely thought to be an important empirical measure of attention.39 The quality of politics, and the fortunes of particular politicians, depends significantly on the extent of public attention. For businesses, attention is a prerequisite for a sale. From a macroeconomic perspective, services are growing in importance. Services are often denominated in time, and the consumption of services is typically much more time dependent than the consumption of goods. Time may be more important than money. Adults in high-income countries have gained significant additional discretionary time over the past seventy-five years. Discretionary time is time remaining after time spent on paid work, family care, personal care (sleeping, eating, hygiene, and grooming), and associated travel. Methodologically sophisticated time budget surveys in the US show that average discretionary time for persons ages 18-64 rose from 34.8 hours per week in 1965 to 41.0 hours per week in 1995.40 Based on more fragmentary evidence, discretionary time for a male household head rose 220% in the US from 1880 to 1995.41 These trends, along with other data, indicate that in the mid-1920s adults in the US probably had about 26 hours of discretionary time per week.42 Thus over seventy years philosophy, particularly his discussion of Sophists. Stewart, Matthew, The truth about everything (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1997). 38 On the former, see http://lutheranworld.org/SpecialEvents/Justification/Welcome.EN.html. On the latter, see, for example, Speech of Pope John Paul II, Visit to the Yad Vashem Museum (23 March 2000), on the web at http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20000323_yadvashem-mausoleum_en.html 39 E.g., among lovers, lawyers, and lobbyists. 40 Robinson, John P. and Geoffrey Godbey, Time for life: the surprising ways Americans use their time, 2’nd ed., (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), p. 339. Holding demographic factors constant, discretionary time rose about an additional three quarters of an hour. 41 Fogel, Robert William, The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism (Chicago and London: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 184. Discretionary time is projected to rise 24% from 1995 to 2040. Id. 42 An noted infra, discretionary time grew 220% in the US from 1880 to 1995, and about 18% from 1965 to 1995. These trends suggest about 22 hours of discretionary time in 1925. However, discretionary time probably grew significantly faster from 1880 to 1925 than from 1925 to 1965. Weekly hours of paid work fell about 11 hours from 1880 to 1925, as compared to a reduction of about 5.5 hours from 1925 to 1965. See Historical Statistics of the United States, series D-627, D-589, D-593, and D-573. Other evidence suggests that hours of housework did not fall significantly from the 1920s to the early 1960s (Robinson, p
discretionary time of US adults increased from about 26 hours per week to 41 hours per week. Discretionary time probably increased even more significantly in countries, such as those in Europe, that currently have lower average hours worked per year than the US A. Media Use Prior to Radio and television The media environment and time spent with media were much different about 1925 than now. Television did not exist in 1925; black and white television sets started to appear in a significant number of consumers'homes only about 1948. In the US and the UK, which pioneered household radio, only about 1% of households had radios in 1923, with non-print meang to 20% in 1926. Silent movies and audio recordings were the only that figure ris dia just before the growth of radio. US movie theatre attendance in 1925 averaged about one attendance every two weeks, or an average of about 50 minutes per week. Expenditure on musical recordings was about one-fourth of expenditure on movies. Thus in the US about 1925 non-print media probably occupied only an hour of n adult s discretionary time per week. The scholarly literature on the growth and spread of newspapers tends to emphasize the enthusiasm of readers. A leading US social history invokes images of starvation and the distribution of necessities: as the mass press spread into the countryside farmers who never before had a chance to receive a daily ration of fresh news from the city, gorged themselves with two or even three daily papers .. In 1925 us daily newspaper circulation amounted to 1. 2 newspapers per household. Scholars have noted and lamented the subsequent sharp decline, with newspapers per household falling to 0.6 in 1998. Before the advent of radio and television, did the average person time reading news, or at least reading newspapers?u what about reading in general in the era before radio and television? 49-51, Bowden, Sue, and Avner Offer, Household appliances and the use of time: the United States and Britain since the 1920s, Economic History Review, XLVI 4(1994), pp 733-734) The average workyear in the mid-1990s in France, German, and Sweden was 5%,8%, and 19% less respectively, than in the US Fogel, p. 186 4 Bowden and Offer, Table 1, p. 7 Historical Statistics, Series A-119 to A-122, H-873. Two popular films in 1925 were The Gold Rush' (75 minutes long)andThe Big Parade (140 minutes long) Historical Statistics, Series H-884, and"Recording Technology History, ttp: //history. acusd. edu/gen/recording/notes. html, Section on New Popular Music "Boorstin, Daniel, The Americans: The Democratic Experiment(New York: Random House, 1973), pp 35-136. Historical Statistics, Series R-176, and Statistical Abstract of the US, Table No. 1419 49 Statistical Abstract, Table No. 1419, No. 1440. Putnam, Robert, Bowling Alone(NY: Simon &Schuster 2000p.218 A study in the mid-1920s of what parts of newspapers readers actually read found that the most popular subjects were sports and cartoons. See gray, william S, and Ruth Monroe, The Reading Interests and Habits of Adults(New York: Macmillan Co., 1929)p. 43-44. Educational scholars at the time expressed concern about the relatively rapid growth of tabloids and low quality reading material. See Gray and Monroe, pp. 11, 39-68
12 discretionary time of US adults increased from about 26 hours per week to 41 hours per week. Discretionary time probably increased even more significantly in countries, such as those in Europe, that currently have lower average hours worked per year than the US43 A. Media Use Prior to Radio and Television The media environment and time spent with media were much different about 1925 than now. Television did not exist in 1925; black and white television sets started to appear in a significant number of consumers’ homes only about 1948. In the US and the UK, which pioneered household radio, only about 1% of households had radios in 1923, with that figure rising to 20% in 1926.44 Silent movies and audio recordings were the only non-print media just before the growth of radio. US movie theatre attendance in 1925 averaged about one attendance every two weeks, or an average of about 50 minutes per week.45 Expenditure on musical recordings was about one-fourth of expenditure on movies.46 Thus in the US about 1925 non-print media probably occupied only an hour of an adult’s discretionary time per week. The scholarly literature on the growth and spread of newspapers tends to emphasize the enthusiasm of readers. A leading US social history invokes images of starvation and the distribution of necessities: as the mass press spread into the countryside farmers “who never before had a chance to receive a daily ration of fresh news from the city, gorged themselves with two or even three daily papers….”47 In 1925 US daily newspaper circulation amounted to 1.2 newspapers per household.48 Scholars have noted and lamented the subsequent sharp decline, with newspapers per household falling to 0.6 in 1998.49 Before the advent of radio and television, did the average person spend more time reading news, or at least reading newspapers?50 What about reading in general in the era before radio and television? 49-51, Bowden, Sue, and Avner Offer, “Household appliances and the use of time: the United States and Britain since the 1920s,” Economic History Review, XLVII 4(1994), pp. 733-734). 43 The average workyear in the mid-1990s in France, German, and Sweden was 5%, 8%, and 19% less, respectively, than in the US Fogel, p. 186. 44 Bowden and Offer, Table 1, p. 729. 45 Historical Statistics, Series A-119 to A-122, H-873. Two popular films in 1925 were “The Gold Rush” (75 minutes long) and “The Big Parade” (140 minutes long). 46 Historical Statistics, Series H-884, and “Recording Technology History”, http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/notes.html, Section on New Popular Music. 47 Boorstin, Daniel, The Americans: The Democratic Experiment (New York: Random House, 1973), pp. 135-136. 48 Historical Statistics, Series R-176, and Statistical Abstract of the US, Table No. 1419. 49 Statistical Abstract, Table No. 1419, No. 1440. Putnam, Robert, Bowling Alone (NY: Simon & Schuster, 2000) p. 218. 50 A study in the mid-1920s of what parts of newspapers readers actually read found that the most popular subjects were sports and cartoons. See Gray, William S., and Ruth Monroe, The Reading Interests and Habits of Adults (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929) p. 43-44. Educational scholars at the time expressed concern about the relatively rapid growth of tabloids and low quality reading material. See Gray and Monroe, pp. 11, 39-68
Circumstantial evidence suggests that the growth of radio and television -hot, rich media has not dramatically affected discretionary time allocated to reading. Among the highest income countries(OECD members), newspaper circulation per person shows no overall trend from 1950 to 1996. Moreover, in contrast to newspaper circulation, magazine circulation in the US shows a dramatic rise from 0.5 magazines per person in 1922 to 1.9 magazines per person in 1998. A US study in the mid-1920s found that popular weeklies, such as the Saturday Evening Post and Literary Digest, were retained for about six months on average. This suggests that in the mid-1920s magazine reading was not a structured habit that kept up with the pace of periodical publication. Book reading is the most difficult type of reading to assess empirically. Based on Publishers Weekly's count of new books and editions, the number of new books and editions published in the US rose from 0. 1 per thousand persons in 1925 to 0.3 per thousand persons in 1997 Direct evidence on reading time in the mid-1920s suggests that the average adult in the US spent 23% of discretionary time reading, with newspaper reading amounting to about 10% of discretionary time. According to an academic leader in the movement to provide a scientific, factual foundation for advertising, the average reader in 1925 spent 15 minutes per day reading the newspaper. Surveys that this scholar conducted and reviewed support that conclusion, as did an earlier survey. In contrast, scholars S Norris, Pippa, A Virtuous Circle: Political Communications in Post-Industrial Societies(NY: Cambridge UniversityPress,2000)chapter4.Draftavailableonthewebathttp://www.pippanorris.com Figures are for persons ages 15 and older. Magazine circulation for 1922 is from Ayre's Newspaper Annual and Directory, as presented in Reeder, Ward G,"Amount and Kind of reading in the various States, Educational Research Bulletin Vol. 3(April 30, 1924)p. 179. Magazine circulation for 1998 includes subscription and single copies for ABC and BPA audited titles. See Magazine Publishers of America,onthewebathttp://www.magazine.org/resources/factsheets/csl900.html Based on 716 weeklies received at a junk dealers establishment in Cleveland in 1925. Weeklies received that were published prior to 1924 were excluded from the calculation on the grounds that their"active life ad passed. R.O. Eastman study, described in White, Percival, Advertising Research(New York: D Appleton and Company, 1927)pp 302-305 s Figures are for persons ages 15 and older. The count of new books and editions is from Peters,Jean Book Industry Statistics from the R. R. Bowker Company, " Publishing Research Quarterly(Fall 1992)p 18, and Statistical Abstract, Table 938. Alternative sources indicate that the Publishers' Weekly count underestimated the number of new titles in 1990 by more than 50%. See Dessauer, John P,The Growing Gap in Book Industry Statistics, Publishing Research Quarterly(Summer 1993)pp 68-71 Franken, Richard B, The Attention-Value of Newspaper Advertisements(The Association of National Advertisers, 1925), p. 12. Several years earlier, this scholar, in conjunction with another leading academic scholar of advertising, surveyed New York City business executives and professional men in order to gain facts about reading habits. Among a wide variety of results about different aspects of newspaper readership, the survey indicated that 65% of the survey respondents read"a newspaper" about 15 minutes or less. Hotckkiss, George Burton, and Richard B. Franken, Newspaper Reading Habits of Business Executives and Professional Men in New York(New York University, Bureau of Business Research, 1922), Table 8. Surveys were mailed to 2000 persons, of which 599(30.2%)responded. Hotchkiss and Franken clearly use 15 minutes as a measure of total reading time, and their methodological sophistication suggests hat they would not be confused by the fact, measured in their survey, that persons often read more than one newspaper. On the other hand, some respondents may have been confused. Note that this figure is for a group associated with high income, high status, and high education, and each person on average read 2.80 papers. Comparing this group to other groups for which surveys had been conducted, Hotchkiss and Franken noted, It appears that the business and professional men of New York spend on the average a larger amount of time in reading papers than is spent by the average college student. In fact, the amount of 13
13 Circumstantial evidence suggests that the growth of radio and television – hot, rich media – has not dramatically affected discretionary time allocated to reading. Among the highest income countries (OECD members), newspaper circulation per person shows no overall trend from 1950 to 1996.51 Moreover, in contrast to newspaper circulation, magazine circulation in the US shows a dramatic rise from 0.5 magazines per person in 1922 to 1.9 magazines per person in 1998.52 A US study in the mid-1920s found that popular weeklies, such as the Saturday Evening Post and Literary Digest, were retained for about six months on average.53 This suggests that in the mid-1920s magazine reading was not a structured habit that kept up with the pace of periodical publication. Book reading is the most difficult type of reading to assess empirically. Based on Publishers Weekly’s count of new books and editions, the number of new books and editions published in the US rose from 0.1 per thousand persons in 1925 to 0.3 per thousand persons in 1997.54 Direct evidence on reading time in the mid-1920s suggests that the average adult in the US spent 23% of discretionary time reading, with newspaper reading amounting to about 10% of discretionary time. According to an academic leader in the movement to provide a scientific, factual foundation for advertising, the average reader in 1925 spent 15 minutes per day reading the newspaper. Surveys that this scholar conducted and reviewed support that conclusion, as did an earlier survey.55 In contrast, scholars 51 Norris, Pippa, A Virtuous Circle: Political Communications in Post-Industrial Societies (NY: Cambridge University Press, 2000) Chapter 4. Draft available on the web at http://www.pippanorris.com . 52 Figures are for persons ages 15 and older. Magazine circulation for 1922 is from Ayre’s Newspaper Annual and Directory, as presented in Reeder, Ward G., “Amount and Kind of Reading in the Various States,” Educational Research Bulletin Vol. 3 (April 30, 1924) p. 179. Magazine circulation for 1998 includes subscription and single copies for ABC and BPA audited titles. See Magazine Publishers of America, on the web at http://www.magazine.org/resources/fact_sheets/cs1_9_00.html . 53 Based on 716 weeklies received at a junk dealers establishment in Cleveland in 1925. Weeklies received that were published prior to 1924 were excluded from the calculation on the grounds that their “active life” had passed. R.O. Eastman study, described in White, Percival, Advertising Research (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1927) pp. 302-305. 54 Figures are for persons ages 15 and older. The count of new books and editions is from Peters, Jean, “Book Industry Statistics from the R.R. Bowker Company,” Publishing Research Quarterly (Fall 1992) p. 18, and Statistical Abstract, Table 938. Alternative sources indicate that the Publishers’ Weekly count underestimated the number of new titles in 1990 by more than 50%. See Dessauer, John P., “The Growing Gap in Book Industry Statistics,” Publishing Research Quarterly (Summer 1993) pp. 68-71. 55 Franken, Richard B., The Attention-Value of Newspaper Advertisements (The Association of National Advertisers, 1925), p. 12. Several years earlier, this scholar, in conjunction with another leading academic scholar of advertising, surveyed New York City business executives and professional men in order to gain facts about reading habits. Among a wide variety of results about different aspects of newspaper readership, the survey indicated that 65% of the survey respondents read “a newspaper” about 15 minutes or less. Hotckkiss, George Burton, and Richard B. Franken, Newspaper Reading Habits of Business Executives and Professional Men in New York (New York University, Bureau of Business Research, 1922), Table 8. Surveys were mailed to 2000 persons, of which 599 (30.2%) responded. Hotchkiss and Franken clearly use 15 minutes as a measure of total reading time, and their methodological sophistication suggests that they would not be confused by the fact, measured in their survey, that persons often read more than one newspaper. On the other hand, some respondents may have been confused. Note that this figure is for a group associated with high income, high status, and high education, and each person on average read 2.80 papers. Comparing this group to other groups for which surveys had been conducted, Hotchkiss and Franken noted, “It appears that the business and professional men of New York spend on the average a larger amount of time in reading papers than is spent by the average college student. In fact, the amount of
associated with libraries and educational organizations found, in surveys focused on reading habits and materials, much greater reading times. Personal interviews with 3 14 adults in Chicago in the early 1920s elicited reading times that averaged 28, 24, and 41 minutes per day for books, magazines, and newspapers, respectively. The interests of the interviewer, the narrow scope and personal nature of the interview, and the soc economic status associated with reading created significant potential for over-reporting reported counts of reading material suggest that reading may have exaggerated by a factor of two or more. Evidence from general time budget studies in the early and mid 1930s suggests that persons read newspapers about 20-25 minutes per day, or about two and a half hours per week. Total reading time per adult in the mid-1920s probably averaged about six hours per week B. Radio and television Time in the late 1990s In most countries over the past seventy-five years, television has dramatically reshape use of discretionary time. In the US, knowledgeable observers have linked current television use to a figure of 7 hours per day, which implies 49 hours per week. This ime is greater than has been shown by similar groups in other cities where such investigations have been made. Id p. 5. A survey of 2300"prominent business and professional men"in Chicago about 1910 found that about 15 minutes per day was the amount of time spent reading all newspapers. See Scott, Walter Dill, The Psychology of Advertising(Boston: Small, Maynard, Co, 1913)Chapter 16, esp. pp 232-233 See gray, William S, and Ruth Monroe, The Reading Interests and Habits of Adults(New York Macmillan Co., 1929)pp 28-29. The reported number of books read per year was 11. 4 for men and 20 for women. Data from another study in the mid-1920s indicated that men read about 2.5 books per year and women 4 books per year. Id p 31. The percent of women who read magazines( 81%)also appears high In interviews with 1, 790 families in Cleveland in 1942, 55% of housewives possessed and claimed readership of a magazine. See Paul w. Stewart and Ass, A Study of the market Characteristics and the Magazine Reading Habits of Cleveland Housewives(Neward: Family Circle Inc, 1942)p 52. The number of newspapers and magazines read also appears high relative to the national averages cited infra above Surveys of college students at University of Chicago and University of Rochester in the mid-1920s found 2-3 hours per week for reading of"serious books and magazines not directly connected with their university courses. Gray and Monroe, p. 73 S7In a suburban area outside of New York City, 365 male executives, professionals, and other white collar workers average 64 minutes of reading per day in time budgets during 1931-33. Many of these respondents rode a commuter train to New York City, which may have encouraged reading. See Robinson, op cit. pp 38-39, 73-79, citing Lundberg, G.A., Mirra Komarowsky, and Mary Mclnerny, Leisure: A Suburban Study for reading newspapers and magazines and total reading time of 51 minutes. See Robinson, op ci ,P. o y (New York, 1934). A time budget study for 176 young adults in Boston in 1935 showed 29 minutes per da 80-81, analyzing Sorokin, P A and C.Q. Berger, Time Budgets of Human Behavior( Cambridge, MA 1939). Other data suggest that newspaper reading amounted to about 40% of total reading and 70% of eading of newspapers and magazines. See above, Robinson, op. cit, p. 41, and robinson, Time for Life, p 40 s8 " The average American still spends seven hours per day watching television, but only eight hours a month online. Italicization was included in the original text. Statement of FCC Chairman William E Kennard, In the Matter of 1998 Biennial Regulatory Review- Review of the Commission's Broadcast Ovnership Rules and Other Rules Adopted Pursuant to Section 202 of the Telecommunications Act, MM Docket 98-35(released June 20, 2000)p 67 [available on line at http://www.fcc.gov/bureaus/MassMedia/orders/2000/fCc00191.pdf]"theaveragehomehasits television going for almost seven hours each day . Beyond noting the undeniable fact that too many people watch too much television, it is hard to know what to make of these statistics. Krattenmaker and
14 associated with libraries and educational organizations found, in surveys focused on reading habits and materials, much greater reading times. Personal interviews with 314 adults in Chicago in the early 1920s elicited reading times that averaged 28, 24, and 41 minutes per day for books, magazines, and newspapers, respectively. The interests of the interviewer, the narrow scope and personal nature of the interview, and the socioeconomic status associated with reading created significant potential for over-reporting; reported counts of reading material suggest that reading may have exaggerated by a factor of two or more.56 Evidence from general time budget studies in the early and mid 1930s suggests that persons read newspapers about 20-25 minutes per day, or about two and a half hours per week.57 Total reading time per adult in the mid-1920s probably averaged about six hours per week. B. Radio and Television Time in the late 1990s In most countries over the past seventy-five years, television has dramatically reshaped use of discretionary time. In the US, knowledgeable observers have linked current television use to a figure of 7 hours per day, which implies 49 hours per week.58 This time is greater than has been shown by similar groups in other cities where such investigations have been made.” Id. p. 5. A survey of 2300 “prominent business and professional men” in Chicago about 1910 found that about 15 minutes per day was the amount of time spent reading all newspapers. See Scott, Walter Dill, The Psychology of Advertising (Boston: Small, Maynard, & Co, 1913) Chapter 16, esp. pp. 232-233. 56 See Gray, William S., and Ruth Monroe, The Reading Interests and Habits of Adults (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929) pp. 28-29. The reported number of books read per year was 11.4 for men and 20 for women. Data from another study in the mid-1920s indicated that men read about 2.5 books per year and women 4 books per year. Id. p. 31. The percent of women who read magazines (81%) also appears high. In interviews with 1,790 families in Cleveland in 1942, 55% of housewives possessed and claimed readership of a magazine. See Paul W. Stewart and Ass., A Study of the Market Characteristics and the Magazine Reading Habits of Cleveland Housewives (Neward: Family Circle Inc., 1942) p. 52. The number of newspapers and magazines read also appears high relative to the national averages cited infra above. Surveys of college students at University of Chicago and University of Rochester in the mid-1920s found 2-3 hours per week for reading of “serious books and magazines not directly connected with their university courses.” Gray and Monroe, p. 73. 57 In a suburban area outside of New York City, 365 male executives, professionals, and other white collar workers average 64 minutes of reading per day in time budgets during 1931-33. Many of these respondents rode a commuter train to New York City, which may have encouraged reading. See Robinson, op. cit. pp. 38-39, 73-79, citing Lundberg, G.A., Mirra Komarowsky, and Mary McInerny, Leisure: A Suburban Study (New York, 1934). A time budget study for 176 young adults in Boston in 1935 showed 29 minutes per day for reading newspapers and magazines and total reading time of 51 minutes. See Robinson, op. cit., p. 39, 80-81, analyzing Sorokin, P.A. and C.Q. Berger, Time Budgets of Human Behavior (Cambridge, MA, 1939). Other data suggest that newspaper reading amounted to about 40% of total reading and 70% of reading of newspapers and magazines. See above, Robinson, op. cit., p. 41, and Robinson, Time for Life, p. 140. 58 “The average American still spends seven hours per day watching television, but only eight hours a month online.” Italicization was included in the original text. Statement of FCC Chairman William E. Kennard, In the Matter of 1998 Biennial Regulatory Review – Review of the Commission’s Broadcast Ownership Rules and Other Rules Adopted Pursuant to Section 202 of the Telecommunications Act, MM Docket 98-35 (released June 20,2000) p. 67 [available on line at http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Mass_Media/Orders/2000/fcc00191.pdf ]. “The average home has its television going for almost seven hours each day. …Beyond noting the undeniable fact that too many people watch too much television, it is hard to know what to make of these statistics.” Krattenmaker and