《纺织复合材料》课程参考文献（Fiber-Reinforced Composites，THIRD EDITION）01 Introduction

processes,such as filament winding and pultrusion,used for making many fiber-reinforced polymer parts,either reduce or eliminate the finishing oper- ations such as machining and grinding,which are commonly required as finishing operations for cast or forged metallic parts. 1.3 APPLICATIONS Commercial and industrial applications of fiber-reinforced polymer composites are so varied that it is impossible to list them all.In this section,we highlight only the major structural application areas,which include aircraft,space, automotive,sporting goods,marine,and infrastructure.Fiber-reinforced poly- mer composites are also used in electronics (e.g.,printed circuit boards), building construction (e.g.,floor beams),furniture (e.g.,chair springs),power industry (e.g.,transformer housing),oil industry (e.g.,offshore oil platforms and oil sucker rods used in lifting underground oil),medical industry (e.g.,bone plates for fracture fixation,implants,and prosthetics),and in many industrial prod- ucts,such as step ladders,oxygen tanks,and power transmission shafts.Poten- tial use of fiber-reinforced composites exists in many engineering fields.Putting them to actual use requires careful design practice and appropriate process development based on the understanding of their unique mechanical,physical, and thermal characteristics. 1.3.1 AIRCRAFT AND MILITARY APPLICATIONS The major structural applications for fiber-reinforced composites are in the field of military and commercial aircrafts,for which weight reduction is critical for higher speeds and increased payloads.Ever since the production application of boron fiber-reinforced epoxy skins for F-14 horizontal stabilizers in 1969, the use of fiber-reinforced polymers has experienced a steady growth in the aircraft industry.With the introduction of carbon fibers in the 1970s,carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy has become the primary material in many wing,fuselage, and empennage components (Table 1.3).The structural integrity and durability of these early components have built up confidence in their performance and prompted developments of other structural aircraft components,resulting in an increasing amount of composites being used in military aircrafts.For example, the airframe of AV-8B,a vertical and short take-off and landing (VSTOL) aircraft introduced in 1982,contains nearly 25%by weight of carbon fiber- reinforced epoxy.The F-22 fighter aircraft also contains ~25%by weight of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers;the other major materials are titanium(39%) and aluminum (16%).The outer skin of B-2 (Figure 1.1)and other stealth aircrafts is almost all made of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers.The stealth characteristics of these aircrafts are due to the use of carbon fibers,special coatings,and other design features that reduce radar reflection and heat radiation. 2007 by Taylor Francis Group,LLC

processes, such as filament winding and pultrusion, used for making many fiber-reinforced polymer parts, either reduce or eliminate the finishing oper￾ations such as machining and grinding, which are commonly required as finishing operations for cast or forged metallic parts. 1.3 APPLICATIONS Commercial and industrial applications of fiber-reinforced polymer composites are so varied that it is impossible to list them all. In this section, we highlight only the major structural application areas, which include aircraft, space, automotive, sporting goods, marine, and infrastructure. Fiber-reinforced poly￾mer composites are also used in electronics (e.g., printed circuit boards), building construction (e.g., floor beams), furniture (e.g., chair springs), power industry (e.g., transformer housing), oil industry (e.g., offshore oil platforms and oil suckerrods used in lifting underground oil), medical industry (e.g., bone plates for fracture fixation, implants, and prosthetics), and in many industrial prod￾ucts, such as step ladders, oxygen tanks, and power transmission shafts. Poten￾tial use of fiber-reinforced composites exists in many engineering fields. Putting them to actual use requires careful design practice and appropriate process development based on the understanding of their unique mechanical, physical, and thermal characteristics. 1.3.1 AIRCRAFT AND MILITARY APPLICATIONS The major structural applications for fiber-reinforced composites are in the field of military and commercial aircrafts, for which weight reduction is critical for higher speeds and increased payloads. Ever since the production application of boron fiber-reinforced epoxy skins for F-14 horizontal stabilizers in 1969, the use of fiber-reinforced polymers has experienced a steady growth in the aircraft industry. With the introduction of carbon fibers in the 1970s, carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy has become the primary material in many wing, fuselage, and empennage components (Table 1.3). The structural integrity and durability of these early components have built up confidence in their performance and prompted developments of other structural aircraft components, resulting in an increasing amount of composites being used in military aircrafts. For example, the airframe of AV-8B, a vertical and short take-off and landing (VSTOL) aircraft introduced in 1982, contains nearly 25% by weight of carbon fiber￾reinforced epoxy. The F-22 fighter aircraft also contains ~25% by weight of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers; the other major materials are titanium (39%) and aluminum (16%). The outer skin of B-2 (Figure 1.1) and other stealth aircrafts is almost all made of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers. The stealth characteristics of these aircrafts are due to the use of carbon fibers, special coatings, and other design features that reduce radar reflection and heat radiation.
2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

TABLE 1.3 Early Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers in Military Aircrafts Overall Weight Saving Over Aircraft Component Material Metal Component(%) F.14(1969) Skin on the horizontal stabilizer Boron fiber-epoxy 19 box F.11 Under the wing fairings Carbon fiber-epoxy F.15(1975) Fin,rudder,and stabilizer skins Boron fiber-epoxy 25 F.16(1977) Skins on vertical fin box.fin Carbon fiber-epoxy 2 leading edge F/A-18(1978) Wing skins,horizontal and Carbon fiber-epoxy 35 vertical tail boxes;wing and tail control surfaces,etc. AV-8B(1982) Wing skins and substructures; Carbon fiber-epoxy 25 forward fuselage;horizontal stabilizer;flaps;ailerons Source:Adapted from Riggs,J.P..Mater.Soc.,8.351,1984. The composite applications on commercial aircrafts began with a few selective secondary structural components,all of which were made of a high- strength carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy (Table 1.4).They were designed and produced under the NASA Aircraft Energy Efficiency (ACEE)program and were installed in various airplanes during 1972-1986 [1].By 1987,350 compos- ite components were placed in service in various commercial aircrafts,and over the next few years,they accumulated millions of flight hours.Periodic inspec- tion and evaluation of these components showed some damages caused by ground handling accidents,foreign object impacts,and lightning strikes. FIGURE 1.1 Stealth aircraft (note that the carbon fibers in the construction of the aircraft contributes to its stealth characteristics). 2007 by Taylor Francis Group.LLC

The composite applications on commercial aircrafts began with a few selective secondary structural components, all of which were made of a high￾strength carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy (Table 1.4). They were designed and produced under the NASA Aircraft Energy Efficiency (ACEE) program and were installed in various airplanes during 1972–1986 [1]. By 1987, 350 compos￾ite components were placed in service in various commercial aircrafts, and over the next few years, they accumulated millions of flight hours. Periodic inspec￾tion and evaluation of these components showed some damages caused by ground handling accidents, foreign object impacts, and lightning strikes. TABLE 1.3 Early Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers in Military Aircrafts Aircraft Component Material Overall Weight Saving Over Metal Component (%) F-14 (1969) Skin on the horizontal stabilizer box Boron fiber–epoxy 19 F-11 Under the wing fairings Carbon fiber–epoxy F-15 (1975) Fin, rudder, and stabilizer skins Boron fiber–epoxy 25 F-16 (1977) Skins on vertical fin box, fin leading edge Carbon fiber–epoxy 23 F=A-18 (1978) Wing skins, horizontal and vertical tail boxes; wing and tail control surfaces, etc. Carbon fiber–epoxy 35 AV-8B (1982) Wing skins and substructures; forward fuselage; horizontal stabilizer; flaps; ailerons Carbon fiber–epoxy 25 Source: Adapted from Riggs, J.P., Mater. Soc., 8, 351, 1984. FIGURE 1.1 Stealth aircraft (note that the carbon fibers in the construction of the aircraft contributes to its stealth characteristics).
2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

TABLE 1.4 Early Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers in Commercial Aircrafts Weight Aircraft Component Weight(Ib) Reduction (% Comments Boeing 727 Elevator face sheets 98 25 10 units installed in 1980 737 Horizontal stabilizer 204 737 Wing spoilers 3 Installed in 1973 756 Ailerons,rudders. 3340 (total) elevators,fairings,etc. MeDonnell-Douglas DC-10 Upper rudder 67 26 13 units installed in 1976 DC-10 Vertical stabilizer 834 17 Lockheed L-1011 Aileron 107 23 10 units installed in 1981 L-1011 Vertical stabilizer 622 25 Apart from these damages,there was no degradation of residual strengths due to either fatigue or environmental exposure.A good correlation was found between the on-ground environmental test program and the performance of the composite components after flight exposure. Airbus was the first commercial aircraft manufacturer to make extensive use of composites in their A310 aircraft,which was introduced in 1987.The composite components weighed about 10%of the aircraft's weight and included such components as the lower access panels and top panels of the wing leading edge,outer deflector doors,nose wheel doors,main wheel leg fairing doors,engine cowling panels,elevators and fin box,leading and trailing edges of fins,flap track fairings,flap access doors,rear and forward wing-body fairings,pylon fairings,nose radome,cooling air inlet fairings,tail leading edges,upper surface skin panels above the main wheel bay,glide slope antenna cover,and rudder.The composite vertical stabilizer,which is 8.3 m high by 7.8 m wide at the base,is about 400 kg lighter than the aluminum vertical stabilizer previously used [2].The Airbus A320,introduced in 1988, was the first commercial aircraft to use an all-composite tail,which includes the tail cone,vertical stabilizer,and horizontal stabilizer.Figure 1.2 schemat- ically shows the composite usage in Airbus A380 introduced in 2006.About 25%of its weight is made of composites.Among the major composite com- ponents in A380 are the central torsion box (which links the left and right wings under the fuselage),rear-pressure bulkhead (a dome-shaped partition that separates the passenger cabin from the rear part of the plane that is not pressurized),the tail,and the flight control surfaces,such as the flaps,spoilers, and ailerons. 2007 by Taylor Francis Group,LLC

Apart from these damages, there was no degradation of residual strengths due to either fatigue or environmental exposure. A good correlation was found between the on-ground environmental test program and the performance of the composite components after flight exposure. Airbus was the first commercial aircraft manufacturer to make extensive use of composites in their A310 aircraft, which was introduced in 1987. The composite components weighed about 10% of the aircraft’s weight and included such components as the lower access panels and top panels of the wing leading edge, outer deflector doors, nose wheel doors, main wheel leg fairing doors, engine cowling panels, elevators and fin box, leading and trailing edges of fins, flap track fairings, flap access doors, rear and forward wing–body fairings, pylon fairings, nose radome, cooling air inlet fairings, tail leading edges, upper surface skin panels above the main wheel bay, glide slope antenna cover, and rudder. The composite vertical stabilizer, which is 8.3 m high by 7.8 m wide at the base, is about 400 kg lighter than the aluminum vertical stabilizer previously used [2]. The Airbus A320, introduced in 1988, was the first commercial aircraft to use an all-composite tail, which includes the tail cone, vertical stabilizer, and horizontal stabilizer. Figure 1.2 schemat￾ically shows the composite usage in Airbus A380 introduced in 2006. About 25% of its weight is made of composites. Among the major composite com￾ponents in A380 are the central torsion box (which links the left and right wings under the fuselage), rear-pressure bulkhead (a dome-shaped partition that separates the passenger cabin from the rear part of the plane that is not pressurized), the tail, and the flight control surfaces, such as the flaps, spoilers, and ailerons. TABLE 1.4 Early Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers in Commercial Aircrafts Aircraft Component Weight (lb) Weight Reduction (%) Comments Boeing 727 Elevator face sheets 98 25 10 units installed in 1980 737 Horizontal stabilizer 204 22 737 Wing spoilers — 37 Installed in 1973 756 Ailerons, rudders, elevators, fairings, etc. 3340 (total) 31 McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 Upper rudder 67 26 13 units installed in 1976 DC-10 Vertical stabilizer 834 17 Lockheed L-1011 Aileron 107 23 10 units installed in 1981 L-1011 Vertical stabilizer 622 25
2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Wing box Vertical Outer wing stabilizer Ailerons Pressure bulkhead Tail cone Flap track fairings Horizontal Outer flap stabilizer Fixed leading edge 0 Keel beam upper and lower panels 0 Outer boxes Belly fairing skins Over-wing panel Radome Trailing edge upper and lower panels and shroud box Nose landing Main and 0 Spoilers gear doors center landing Main landing gear doors gear leg fairing Pylon fairings, door nacelles, and cowlings Central torsion box FIGURE 1.2 Use of fiber-reinforced polymer composites in Airbus 380. Starting with Boeing 777,which was first introduced in 1995,Boeing has started making use of composites in the empennage(which include horizontal stabilizer,vertical stabilizer,elevator,and rudder),most of the control surfaces, engine cowlings,and fuselage floor beams (Figure 1.3).About 10%of Boeing 777's structural weight is made of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy and about 50% is made of aluminum alloys.About 50%of the structural weight of Boeing's Leading and Fin torque box Outboard aileron trailing edge panels Outboard flap Rudder Wing fixed leading edge Trailing edge panels Elevator Stabilizer torque box Strut-Fwd and aft fairing Floor beams Wing landing gear doors Flaps Flaperon Inboard and outboard spoilers Nose radome Nose gear doors Engine cowlings FIGURE 1.3 Use of fiber-reinforced polymer composites in Boeing 777. 2007 by Taylor Francis Group.LLC

Starting with Boeing 777, which was first introduced in 1995, Boeing has started making use of composites in the empennage (which include horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, elevator, and rudder), most of the control surfaces, engine cowlings, and fuselage floor beams (Figure 1.3). About 10% of Boeing 777’s structural weight is made of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy and about 50% is made of aluminum alloys. About 50% of the structural weight of Boeing’s Outer wing Ailerons Flap track fairings Outer flap Radome Fixed leading edge upper and lower panels Main landing gear leg fairing door Main and center landing gear doors Nose landing gear doors Central torsion box Pylon fairings, nacelles, and cowlings Pressure bulkhead Keel beam Tail cone Vertical stabilizer Horizontal stabilizer Outer boxes Over-wing panel Belly fairing skins Trailing edge upper and lower panels and shroud box Spoilers Wing box FIGURE 1.2 Use of fiber-reinforced polymer composites in Airbus 380. Rudder Fin torque box Elevator Stabilizer torque box Floor beams Wing landing gear doors Flaps Flaperon Inboard and outboard spoilers Engine cowlings Nose gear doors Nose radome Strut–Fwd and aft fairing Wing fixed leading edge Outboard aileron Outboard flap Trailing edge panels Leading and trailing edge panels FIGURE 1.3 Use of fiber-reinforced polymer composites in Boeing 777.
2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

next line of airplanes,called the Boeing 787 Dreamliner,will be made of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers.The other major materials in Boeing 787 will be aluminum alloys (20%),titanium alloys (15%),and steel (10%).Two of the major composite components in 787 will be the fuselage and the forward section,both of which will use carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy as the major material of construction. There are several pioneering examples of using larger quantities of com- posite materials in smaller aircrafts.One of these examples is the Lear Fan 2100,a business aircraft built in 1983,in which carbon fiber-epoxy and Kevlar 49 fiber-epoxy accounted for ~70%of the aircraft's airframe weight.The composite components in this aircraft included wing skins,main spar,fuselage, empennage,and various control surfaces [3].Another example is the Rutan Voyager(Figure 1.4),which was an all-composite airplane and made the first- ever nonstop flight around the world in 1986.To travel 25,000 miles without refueling,the Voyager airplane had to be extremely light and contain as much fuel as needed. Fiber-reinforced polymers are used in many military and commercial heli- copters for making baggage doors,fairings,vertical fins,tail rotor spars,and so on.One key helicopter application of composite materials is the rotor blades. Carbon or glass fiber-reinforced epoxy is used in this application.In addition to significant weight reduction over aluminum,they provide a better control over the vibration characteristics of the blades.With aluminum,the critical flopping FIGURE 1.4 Rutan Voyager all-composite plane. 2007 by Taylor Francis Group,LLC

next line of airplanes, called the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, will be made of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers. The other major materials in Boeing 787 will be aluminum alloys (20%), titanium alloys (15%), and steel (10%). Two of the major composite components in 787 will be the fuselage and the forward section, both of which will use carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy as the major material of construction. There are several pioneering examples of using larger quantities of com￾posite materials in smaller aircrafts. One of these examples is the Lear Fan 2100, a business aircraft built in 1983, in which carbon fiber–epoxy and Kevlar 49 fiber–epoxy accounted for ~70% of the aircraft’s airframe weight. The composite components in this aircraft included wing skins, main spar, fuselage, empennage, and various control surfaces [3]. Another example is the Rutan Voyager (Figure 1.4), which was an all-composite airplane and made the first￾ever nonstop flight around the world in 1986. To travel 25,000 miles without refueling, the Voyager airplane had to be extremely light and contain as much fuel as needed. Fiber-reinforced polymers are used in many military and commercial heli￾copters for making baggage doors, fairings, vertical fins, tail rotor spars, and so on. One key helicopter application of composite materials is the rotor blades. Carbon or glass fiber-reinforced epoxy is used in this application. In addition to significant weight reduction over aluminum, they provide a better control over the vibration characteristics of the blades. With aluminum, the critical flopping FIGURE 1.4 Rutan Voyager all-composite plane.
2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC