Chapter one:Introduction carcasses is inevitable.The USDA,therefore,regards such interventions as an important addition to hazard analysis critical control point(HACCP) in meeting the standards required for pathogen control (Smulders and Greer,1998). 1.5 Problems in an "organic world" Consumers are increasingly,and often without grounds,questioning the ability of modern food systems to provide safe and nutritious food of high quality.In response to these consumer conceptions authorities and the industry have to contend with frustration with these attitudes of the public toward food risks,as they believe the public worries about the wrong things.This then often results in twisted agendas and specific efforts by food producers being unjustified and often wrongly allocated (Macfarla ne,2002).The safer food is alsc cons loped countries,are be ly grow ing as c more affluent,live longer,and with deve mo tec nnology and availa information,have a better understanding of the relationship between diet and health(Unnevehr and Jensen,1999).As a result consumers today are sceptical about any additives as preservatives and various industries are compelled to reduce quantities or totally remove additives that are often essential in ensuring quality and safety of a specific foodstuff(Suhr and Nielsen,2004).Contrary to consumer demands,studies have shown that the use of sub pti atior s of preservativ such as the nay stin the growth o spoilag fungi(includ ng Hyphop Aspergil )whi h may lead to mycotoxin production(Arroyo,Aldred,and Magan,2005).However,as individuals may be sensitive to varying preservatives and may present allergic reactions,there are circumstances when the type and amount of preservatives should be controlled(Tang and Wu,2007). When considering consumer prer quisites in a typical decision- making safety is usually ute.Evidenc expect ali i food to be negotiable attr sically fe.However consumer perceptions also relate to human subjectivity which ultimately determines their purchasing and consumption decisions.The meat cri- sis and subsequent decline in beef consumption,particularly in Europe, have forced governments and the meat industry into action in restoring consumer confidence in meat safety and wholesomeness (Tang and wu 2007:Verbeke et al..2007).Consumers also iudge the quality of fresh food- stuffs such as fresh-cut fruit and y ance and freshne at the time will d f purchase Howeve Pa sub equent purchas pend e consumer's experience in ms of t and vor of the product.Then again,everyone uses a different set of criteria interpret the quality of product and the term "acceptability"is a practical
Chapter one: Introduction 7 carcasses is inevitable. The USDA, therefore, regards such interventions as an important addition to hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) in meeting the standards required for pathogen control (Smulders and Greer, 1998). 1.5 Problems in an “organic world” Consumers are increasingly, and often without grounds, questioning the ability of modern food systems to provide safe and nutritious food of high quality. In response to these consumer conceptions authorities and the industry have to contend with frustration with these attitudes of the public toward food risks, as they believe the public worries about the wrong things. This then often results in twisted agendas and specific efforts by food producers being unjustified and often wrongly allocated (Macfarlane, 2002). The demand for safer food is also constantly growing as consumers, specifically in the developed countries, are becoming more affluent, live longer, and with modern technology and available information, have a better understanding of the relationship between diet and health (Unnevehr and Jensen, 1999). As a result consumers today are sceptical about any additives as preservatives and various industries are compelled to reduce quantities or totally remove additives that are often essential in ensuring quality and safety of a specific foodstuff (Suhr and Nielsen, 2004). Contrary to consumer demands, studies have shown that the use of suboptimal concentrations of preservatives such as the organic acids may stimulate the growth of spoilage fungi (including Hyphopichia burtonii, Candida guillermondii, and Aspergillus flavus) which may lead to mycotoxin production (Arroyo, Aldred, and Magan, 2005). However, as individuals may be sensitive to varying preservatives and may present allergic reactions, there are circumstances when the type and amount of preservatives should be controlled (Tang and Wu, 2007). When considering consumer prerequisites in a typical decisionmaking process, safety is usually a nonnegotiable attribute. Evidence suggests that consumers expect all food to be intrinsically safe. However, consumer perceptions also relate to human subjectivity which ultimately determines their purchasing and consumption decisions. The meat crisis and subsequent decline in beef consumption, particularly in Europe, have forced governments and the meat industry into action in restoring consumer confidence in meat safety and wholesomeness (Tang and Wu, 2007; Verbeke et al., 2007). Consumers also judge the quality of fresh foodstuffs such as fresh-cut fruit and vegetables on appearance and freshness at the time of purchase. However, satisfaction and subsequent purchases will depend upon the consumer’s experience in terms of texture and flavor of the product. Then again, everyone uses a different set of criteria to interpret the quality of product and the term “acceptability” is a practical
Organic Acids and Food Preservation oach to quality when compared to a criterion,the quality limit(Rico aPp 2007) et Consumersare also very concerned about pesticides used in food pro- duction,because of possible residues in the food product.In surveys it has been found that both organic and conventional food buyers believe organic produce to be better(Macfarlane,2002).Consumers,and more specifically young people,are showing increased interest in more education about food safety (Cabe-Sellers and Beattie,2004).However,notwithstanding the fact that the c umer is gaining more knowledge e with safety and quality, en th continues to exi Macfarlane ofte incorporates many factors in addition to the quantitative measure of rish It is,however,interesting to acknowledge that from constant research findings,it is evident that what the consumers say they want,and what they actually buy,are often not the same.The desires and realities of the public are also often difficult to understand and impractical to achieve. People want easy-to-p repare food (such as microwave foods)to look smell.and taste as good as those made in an oven.In atte pting to satisfy the desires, more not fewer additives needed nature ,more specifically the increasingly popular prepared foods(Forman,2002). Foods are produced or processed by many technologies and this poses problems and challenges for researchers who are concerned with the fac- tors responsible for consumer choice.acceptance.and purchase behavior Consumer perceptions about safety,risks,benefits,and cost associated with new and modern technologie can influe ce their purchase decisic in way.Much research has therefo h concerns regardi ng specific fo irradiated foods,bioengineered foods,foods containing pesticides,pro- cessed foods that use laser light sources,and of course,microbial contam- inated foods(Cardello.Schutz.and Lesher.2007).Consumers'attitudes toward food safety are not an independent issue and have been shown to influence and predict their behavior.They are shown to be linked to con- sumers'demog aphic and socioe ic status,culture,personal prefer- en and ,and Chou,2003) ask As a res ty incide ents con ers are ncreas ngly ng questio bout the food t they consume and how it is produced which has resultec d in increasing demand for organic products(Martinez and banados,2004).Surveys have indicated that many consumers choose organic foods because of a belief in nutritional benefits of such organic products.Findings of one survey demonstrated that the main reasons consumers purchased organic foods were avoidance of pesticides(70%), freshness(68%),health and nutrition(67%),and to avoid fied foo etically modi- ods (55%;Winter and Davis,2006).It is,however,often very costly
8 Organic Acids and Food Preservation approach to quality when compared to a criterion, the quality limit (Rico et al., 2007). Consumers are also very concerned about pesticides used in food production, because of possible residues in the food product. In surveys it has been found that both organic and conventional food buyers believe organic produce to be better (Macfarlane, 2002). Consumers, and more specifically young people, are showing increased interest in more education about food safety (Cabe-Sellers and Beattie, 2004). However, notwithstanding the fact that the consumer is gaining more knowledge with regard to food safety and quality, there is the gap between the experts and the public that continues to exist (Macfarlane, 2002). The public perception of risk often incorporates many factors in addition to the quantitative measure of risk. It is, however, interesting to acknowledge that from constant research findings, it is evident that what the consumers say they want, and what they actually buy, are often not the same. The desires and realities of the public are also often difficult to understand and impractical to achieve. People want easy-to-prepare food (such as microwave foods) to look, smell, and taste as good as those made in an oven. In attempting to satisfy these desires, more not fewer additives are then needed. The nature of foods also continues to change, more specifically the increasingly popular prepared foods (Forman, 2002). Foods are produced or processed by many technologies and this poses problems and challenges for researchers who are concerned with the factors responsible for consumer choice, acceptance, and purchase behavior. Consumer perceptions about safety, risks, benefits, and cost associated with new and modern technologies can influence their purchase decisions in a negative way. Much research has therefore been devoted to the evaluation of consumers’ concerns regarding specific food safety issues such as irradiated foods, bioengineered foods, foods containing pesticides, processed foods that use laser light sources, and of course, microbial contaminated foods (Cardello, Schutz, and Lesher, 2007). Consumers’ attitudes toward food safety are not an independent issue and have been shown to influence and predict their behavior. They are shown to be linked to consumers’ demographic and socioeconomic status, culture, personal preferences, and experience (Cheng, Yu, and Chou, 2003). As a result of various food safety incidents consumers are increasingly asking questions about the food they consume and how it is produced, which has resulted in increasing demand for organic products (Martinez and Bañados, 2004). Surveys have indicated that many consumers choose organic foods because of a belief in nutritional benefits of such organic products. Findings of one survey demonstrated that the main reasons consumers purchased organic foods were avoidance of pesticides (70%), freshness (68%), health and nutrition (67%), and to avoid genetically modified foods (55%; Winter and Davis, 2006). It is, however, often very costly
Chapter one:Introduction 9 to test for the safety of products,causing some reason for concern,as pri- vate markets often fail to provide for adequate food safety,a safety that is not readily apparent to consumers(Unnevehr and Jensen,1999). Another concern in the food safety arena is consumers who may prefer cons ing raw or under cooked foods ite the risks known to Althoug consumers need to be educated about avoiding such foods is very difficult to change customs and cultures of a population and it may be more effective to consider other more cost-effective interventions (Molins,Motariemi,and Kaferstein,2001).However,increased public scrutiny about the use of antibiotics and other additives in the animal feed industry has now directed res earch toward alte manipu lating gastrointestinal microflora in livestock(Castillo et al,2004). 1.5.1 Nutrition and consumer perceptions Some studies have concluded that organic production methods would mean increasedo th su phenolic compour to have potential human health benefits as antioxidants,their impact on human health when consuming greater levels of organic acids and poly- phenolics has not yet been determined(Winter and Davis,2006). 1.5.2 Pesticides In agricultural development pesticides have become indispensable as plant protection agents and essential in enhancing food production. Pesticides also play a significant role,apart from their role in food pro- duction,in keeping society free from deadly diseases such as malaria, and filiariasis among others.More nt in rural health program er,pesticides controlling bit ing or irrita ing insects and other pests that may plague humans and animals(Rekha, Naik.and Prasad.2006). However,indiscriminate use has led to occupational hazards in the developing world and is posing a severe risk to human health.The overall trend is in deve a food oduction cally,and economic acceptab I w be the development of an alternative for economic crop production with out the use of agrochemicals.One such alternative to synthetic pesticide use is organic agriculture and food processes,which are already widely npractice in developed countries.The aims of organic food production encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farn ing systems in attempting to naintain and increase il fertility,to minimize nega- tive effects caused by fertilizers and pesticides,and ultimately to produce
Chapter one: Introduction 9 to test for the safety of products, causing some reason for concern, as private markets often fail to provide for adequate food safety, a safety that is not readily apparent to consumers (Unnevehr and Jensen, 1999). Another concern in the food safety arena is consumers who may prefer consuming raw or undercooked foods, despite the risks known to them. Although consumers need to be educated about avoiding such foods it is very difficult to change customs and cultures of a population and it may be more effective to consider other more cost-effective interventions (Molins, Motarjemi, and Käferstein, 2001). However, increased public scrutiny about the use of antibiotics and other additives in the animal feed industry has now directed research toward alternative means for manipulating gastrointestinal microflora in livestock (Castillo et al., 2004). 1.5.1 Nutrition and consumer perceptions Some studies have concluded that organic production methods would mean increased nutrient content, particularly organic acids and polyphenolic compounds. Although many of these substances are considered to have potential human health benefits as antioxidants, their impact on human health when consuming greater levels of organic acids and polyphenolics has not yet been determined (Winter and Davis, 2006). 1.5.2 Pesticides In agricultural development pesticides have become indispensable as plant protection agents and essential in enhancing food production. Pesticides also play a significant role, apart from their role in food production, in keeping society free from deadly diseases such as malaria, dengue, encephalitis, and filiariasis among others. Moreover, pesticides are also important in rural health programs, controlling biting or irritating insects and other pests that may plague humans and animals (Rekha, Naik, and Prasad, 2006). However, indiscriminate use has led to occupational hazards in the developing world and is posing a severe risk to human health. The overall trend is in developing a food production system that is socially, ecologically, and economically acceptable as well as sustainable. The ideal would be the development of an alternative for economic crop production without the use of agrochemicals. One such alternative to synthetic pesticide use is organic agriculture and food processes, which are already widely in practice in developed countries. The aims of organic food production is to encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming systems in attempting to maintain and increase soil fertility, to minimize negative effects caused by fertilizers and pesticides, and ultimately to produce
0 Organic Acids and Food Preservation quantities of high-quality food.Howe this (Rekha,Nak,and) ce ss is costly 1.5.3 Mycotoxins Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. These mycotoxins may cause a toxic response,referred to as mycotoxicosis, wheningested by humansor animals.Aspergillus,Fusarium,and Penicillium are ther contaminating foods through th before harvest,during h ng imprope storag hich also represen one of the most potentially carcinogenic substances known.Aflatoxins are rated as Class I human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)(Binder,2007).It is,therefore,one of the more serious problems to deal with in an organic food production setup,where common preservatives and antifungal agents are almost nonexistent. 1.5.4 Food safety control measures Effective control measures are the cornerstone for ensuring food safety These include methods available in preventing food contamination and also decontamination,in instances where this may be necessary.It has been shown,over and over again,that present production methods are inadequate to totally prevent food contamination.Moreover,the complex- ity of food handling and processing provides ample opp ortunity for con- tamination as well as su vival and rowth of p nic orga nisms It also c th re,productio would re cor as ma ny pathogens are par of the normal flora of the environment,and to make things even worse, public health authorities all over the world are faced with newly recog- nized types of foodborne illnesses emerging and reemerging(Molins, Motarjemi,and Kaferstein,2001). 1.5.5 Seeking alternatives The food safety problem has reached a stage where the presence of harmful ia has e an even greater concern,as c ried about new technologies and ingredients in their food(Smith DeWaal 2003).A real need has developed to find alternatives for preservation in an ever-demanding consumer world.One area where various alternatives have been suggested,is the preservation of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables, to improve the efficacy of washing treatments.Alternative methods have been proposed and include (1)antioxidants,(2)irradiation,(3)ozone,(4) organic acids. (5)modified atmosphere packaging,and(6)whey permeat
10 Organic Acids and Food Preservation adequate quantities of high-quality food. However, this process is costly, labor intensive, and not always effective (Rekha, Naik, and Prasad, 2006). 1.5.3 Mycotoxins Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. These mycotoxins may cause a toxic response, referred to as mycotoxicosis, when ingested by humans or animals. Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium are the most abundant mycotoxin producers, contaminating foods through fungal growth before harvest, during harvest, or often during improper storage. Most common mycotoxins are the aflatoxins, which also represent one of the most potentially carcinogenic substances known. Aflatoxins are rated as Class I human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (Binder, 2007). It is, therefore, one of the more serious problems to deal with in an organic food production setup, where common preservatives and antifungal agents are almost nonexistent. 1.5.4 Food safety control measures Effective control measures are the cornerstone for ensuring food safety. These include methods available in preventing food contamination and also decontamination, in instances where this may be necessary. It has been shown, over and over again, that present production methods are inadequate to totally prevent food contamination. Moreover, the complexity of food handling and processing provides ample opportunity for contamination, as well as survival and growth of pathogenic organisms. It also cannot be foreseen that in the near future, production methods would be able to ensure contamination-free foods, as many pathogens are part of the normal flora of the environment, and to make things even worse, public health authorities all over the world are faced with newly recognized types of foodborne illnesses emerging and reemerging (Molins, Motarjemi, and Käferstein, 2001). 1.5.5 Seeking alternatives The food safety problem has reached a stage where the presence of harmful bacteria has become an even greater concern, as consumers remain worried about new technologies and ingredients in their food (Smith DeWaal, 2003). A real need has developed to find alternatives for preservation in an ever-demanding consumer world. One area where various alternatives have been suggested, is the preservation of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables, to improve the efficacy of washing treatments. Alternative methods have been proposed and include (1) antioxidants, (2) irradiation, (3) ozone, (4) organic acids, (5) modified atmosphere packaging, and (6) whey permeate
Chapter one:Introduction 11 among others.These methods are actually modified methods,but have not yet gained widespread acceptance by the industry.Their acceptance limit is also primarily defined by economic and physiological factors,whereas the quality of a product is largely defined by its intrinsic properties.For examplefor fruits and vegetables,the product properties such as co firmness,and taste are known to change over time(Rico et al,2007). 1.6 New and emerging pathogens 1.6.1 Introduction effectivene as naturally occurring antimicrobial biomolecules in combination with the other common components of food preservation systems.This would entail understanding the concept of microorganisms dying,surviving, adapting.or growing as well as the physiologi ical and molecular mecha. nisms within cells that result in these pes(Brul and Coote,1999). ical pro nd the in of this in food safet e WHO foo d strategic planning mee Galvez et al,2007).Of major concern is the emergence of new pathogens together with problems with pathogens not previously associated with food consumption.There are constant changes taking place in food pro- duction,preservation,and packaging and because microorganisms,and specifically pathogenic organisms are not limited to cardinal ranges of tem ater activity but can adapt to survive atv ues outside t hose given xtbooks, altered food safety ha hav emerged(Ga et al.,2007).New organisms continue to b to tn list of potential diseases and increased attention is focused on foods not previously considered to be common carriers of hazardous contaminants. For example,in 2004 a widespread outbreak of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis was reported that involved 47 cases,with iceberg lettuce identified as the carrier(Cabe-Sellers and Beattie,2004). 1.6.2 Foodstuffs implicated Meat products are among the leading foods associated with listeriosis in addition to salmonellosis (Mbandi and Shelef,2002).Although the meat from a healthy animal is sterile,it is often contaminated from vari- ous origins.such as dirty skin.hooves.hair.cutting tools.infected per- sonnel polluted water handling,and also during storage( Dur drade,2006) Pathogens th ango, and An t often contaminate fres y aug htere eef carcasses typi cally originate from the bovine gastrointestinal tract,and contaminate via
Chapter one: Introduction 11 among others. These methods are actually modified methods, but have not yet gained widespread acceptance by the industry. Their acceptance limit is also primarily defined by economic and physiological factors, whereas the quality of a product is largely defined by its intrinsic properties. For example, for fruits and vegetables, the product properties such as color, firmness, and taste are known to change over time (Rico et al., 2007). 1.6 New and emerging pathogens 1.6.1 Introduction It has become evident that a need exists for better understanding of the effectiveness of classical preservatives such as the organic acids as well as naturally occurring antimicrobial biomolecules in combination with the other common components of food preservation systems. This would entail understanding the concept of microorganisms dying, surviving, adapting, or growing as well as the physiological and molecular mechanisms within cells that result in these phenotypes (Brul and Coote, 1999). Microbiological problems and the implications of this in food safety have been elucidated at the WHO food strategic planning meeting (WHO, 2003; Galvez et al., 2007). Of major concern is the emergence of new pathogens together with problems with pathogens not previously associated with food consumption. There are constant changes taking place in food production, preservation, and packaging and because microorganisms, and specifically pathogenic organisms, are not limited to cardinal ranges of temperature, pH, and water activity, but can adapt to survive at values outside those given in textbooks, altered food safety hazards have emerged (Galvez et al., 2007). New organisms continue to be added to the list of potential diseases and increased attention is focused on foods not previously considered to be common carriers of hazardous contaminants. For example, in 2004 a widespread outbreak of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis was reported that involved 47 cases, with iceberg lettuce identified as the carrier (Cabe-Sellers and Beattie, 2004). 1.6.2 Foodstuffs implicated Meat products are among the leading foods associated with listeriosis, in addition to salmonellosis (Mbandi and Shelef, 2002). Although the meat from a healthy animal is sterile, it is often contaminated from various origins, such as dirty skin, hooves, hair, cutting tools, infected personnel, polluted water, improper slaughtering procedure, postslaughter handling, and also during storage (Durango, Soares, and Andrade, 2006). Pathogens that often contaminate freshly slaughtered beef carcasses typically originate from the bovine gastrointestinal tract, and contaminate via