1.8 Think about the order in which to write the various sections 9 1.7 Choose one paper as a model and note down useful phrases Choose one paper that is close to your topic,that is written by a native English speaker,and that you enjoyed reading.Use this paper as a model into which you can 'paste'your own research. Notice how your model paper is structured: how does the author begin? what points does s/he make in each section? how does s/he link paragraphs together? how does s/he connect the Results with the Discussion? how does s/he present the Conclusions? As you read your model paper,note down some useful English phrases that the author uses.Such phrases will help to increase the readability of your text,as they will be familiar to your readers.for a list of useful phrases see Chap.19,and see Sect.10.2 for an extended example of what kinds of phrases you might like to note down yourself. 1.8 Think about the order in which to write the various sections There is no standard order in which you should write the various sections of your paper.You should choose the order that suits you best.This may involve writing several sections simultaneously. Many authors start with the Methods,which is often the easiest section to write because this is the part that will usually be clearest in your mind.Beginning with the Methods will also give you the confidence and impetus you need to move on to the other sections of the paper. In reality,it is best to start with the Abstract as this will help you to focus/orient your ideas on what are the key aspects of your research.In any case,if you are going to present your work at a conference,the organizers will ask you to submit an abstract before you write the related paper-you can still change the Abstract when you have finished writing the actual paper. You might find it useful to look at the scientific study protocol that you wrote when you outlined the aims of your research at the beginning of your PhD or before you began your current project.Here you should have written out your goals very clearly,and this will help you to write your Abstract
1.8 Think about the order in which to write the various sections 9 1.7 Choose one paper as a model and note down useful phrases Choose one paper that is close to your topic, that is written by a native English speaker, and that you enjoyed reading. Use this paper as a model into which you can ‘paste’ your own research. Notice how your model paper is structured: • how does the author begin? • what points does s/he make in each section? • how does s/he link paragraphs together? • how does s/he connect the Results with the Discussion? • how does s/he present the Conclusions? As you read your model paper, note down some useful English phrases that the author uses. Such phrases will help to increase the readability of your text, as they will be familiar to your readers. for a list of useful phrases see Chap. 19, and see Sect. 10.2 for an extended example of what kinds of phrases you might like to note down yourself. 1.8 Think about the order in which to write the various sections There is no standard order in which you should write the various sections of your paper. You should choose the order that suits you best. This may involve writing several sections simultaneously. Many authors start with the Methods, which is often the easiest section to write because this is the part that will usually be clearest in your mind. Beginning with the Methods will also give you the confidence and impetus you need to move on to the other sections of the paper. In reality, it is best to start with the Abstract as this will help you to focus / orient your ideas on what are the key aspects of your research. In any case, if you are going to present your work at a conference, the organizers will ask you to submit an abstract before you write the related paper - you can still change the Abstract when you have finished writing the actual paper. You might find it useful to look at the scientific study protocol that you wrote when you outlined the aims of your research at the beginning of your PhD or before you began your current project. Here you should have written out your goals very clearly, and this will help you to write your Abstract
10 1 Planning and Preparation The hardest part for most authors is the Discussion where you have to interpret your results and compare them with other authors'results.While you are writing the Discussion,you may find it useful to draft the Introduction,as some of the authors you mention will appear both in the Introduction and the Discussion. A typical order for writing the various sections is thus: Abstract(very rough draft) Methods Results Discussion Introduction Conclusions Abstract(final version) It is a good idea to write the Results and Discussion before the Introduction.This is because you will only truly understand the significance of what you have done after you have written these two sections.Laying the background foundations on which you can highlight the significance of your research is a major part of the Introduction. 1.9 Create separate files for each section If you decide to write several sections simultaneously,it helps to create files for each section.Then for each file write down a list of the key concepts you want to cover.You can write these down as notes in a random order.Often,as you are writing one section you will think of things that you need to put into other sections. Consequently,it may help to have all the files open so that you can quickly add to them whenever you need to. Depending on the software you are using,you may have a References or Bibliography file that contains a list of papers,books and documents that you have cited before.So,if you are writing in LATEX for example,you can directly cite existing knowledge and previous findings and append any new references. Depending on your field of research,you may also have an appendix in which you have a code/program or some theorems with their proofs
10 1 Planning and Preparation The hardest part for most authors is the Discussion where you have to interpret your results and compare them with other authors’ results. While you are writing the Discussion, you may find it useful to draft the Introduction, as some of the authors you mention will appear both in the Introduction and the Discussion. A typical order for writing the various sections is thus: Abstract (very rough draft) Methods Results Discussion Introduction Conclusions Abstract (final version) It is a good idea to write the Results and Discussion before the Introduction. This is because you will only truly understand the significance of what you have done after you have written these two sections. Laying the background foundations on which you can highlight the significance of your research is a major part of the Introduction. 1.9 Create separate files for each section If you decide to write several sections simultaneously, it helps to create files for each section. Then for each file write down a list of the key concepts you want to cover. You can write these down as notes in a random order. Often, as you are writing one section you will think of things that you need to put into other sections. Consequently, it may help to have all the files open so that you can quickly add to them whenever you need to. Depending on the software you are using, you may have a References or Bibliography file that contains a list of papers, books and documents that you have cited before. So, if you are writing in LATEX for example, you can directly cite existing knowledge and previous findings and append any new references. Depending on your field of research, you may also have an appendix in which you have a code/program or some theorems with their proofs
1.12 Decide what your key findings are and whether you really have a contribution to make 11 1.10 Chat with non experts Some researchers find it hard to write the first words of a new paper.This is often because you don't have clear ideas in your head.So it may be useful simply to talk about your research with a friend or member of your family.To explain your research to such non experts really forces you to think about what is and is not important about your methodology and findings.After you have had this non- technical 'chat',you can write down some notes,which you can then insert into the relevant section files(Sect.1.10). Chatting with friends and family also gives you some idea about how hard or easy it is for non-experts to understand your subject.You can then think of ways to make your paper more accessible for people whose knowledge of your topic is less than yours. 1.11 Give mini presentations to colleagues Before you begin writing,give an oral presentation of your methods and results to your colleagues.These colleagues can then give you useful comments and criticisms. They may be able to give you alternative interpretations,help you understand your anomalous findings,reassure you that it is OK to include your negative findings,and bring to your attention anything that you may have missed out.This will also help you to focus on highlighting your key findings.If you do your presentation in English,it may then help you to formulate phrases that you can then use in the paper. 1.12 Decide what your key findings are and whether you really have a contribution to make One of my students once received the following comment by a referee as a justifica- tion for rejecting her paper:Not acceptable.No new knowledge,science or discovery is presented.This kind of comment may reach you even six months after you have sent your paper for review.For you,it represents a considerable waste in time and energy spent on a paper. So,before you start writing you need to have an absolutely clear idea of: what your research goal was what your most important findings are and how you can demonstrate that they are true how these findings differ from,and add to,previous knowledge
1.12 Decide what your key findings are and whether you really have a contribution to make 11 1.10 Chat with non experts Some researchers find it hard to write the first words of a new paper. This is often because you don’t have clear ideas in your head. So it may be useful simply to talk about your research with a friend or member of your family. To explain your research to such non experts really forces you to think about what is and is not important about your methodology and findings. After you have had this nontechnical ‘chat’, you can write down some notes, which you can then insert into the relevant section files (Sect. 1.10). Chatting with friends and family also gives you some idea about how hard or easy it is for non-experts to understand your subject. You can then think of ways to make your paper more accessible for people whose knowledge of your topic is less than yours. 1.11 Give mini presentations to colleagues Before you begin writing, give an oral presentation of your methods and results to your colleagues. These colleagues can then give you useful comments and criticisms. They may be able to give you alternative interpretations, help you understand your anomalous findings, reassure you that it is OK to include your negative findings, and bring to your attention anything that you may have missed out. This will also help you to focus on highlighting your key findings. If you do your presentation in English, it may then help you to formulate phrases that you can then use in the paper. 1.12 Decide what your key findings are and whether you really have a contribution to make One of my students once received the following comment by a referee as a justification for rejecting her paper: Not acceptable. No new knowledge, science or discovery is presented. This kind of comment may reach you even six months after you have sent your paper for review. For you, it represents a considerable waste in time and energy spent on a paper. So, before you start writing you need to have an absolutely clear idea of: • what your research goal was • what your most important findings are and how you can demonstrate that they are true • how these findings differ from, and add to, previous knowledge
12 1 Planning and Preparation You know implicitly what the importance of your findings are-after all,you may have been working for months and years on the project. But the reader does not know. You must give the reader a clear message. Analyzing the literature (Sect.1.5),and discussing and presenting your findings to colleagues (Sects.1.10 and 1.11)should help you to identify what your key findings are. Make a list of your key findings and choose the most important ones to fit the space you have available (i.e.the total word count allowed by your chosen journal).For each key finding decide if there is another possible explanation for what you have found.You can do this by looking in the literature again.Make sure you have not inserted any bias in your explanation of your findings.Next,write an explanation saying why you think each key finding is true.However,write your explanation in a way that shows you are open to other interpretations. The above suggestions should also help you to decide whether your planned paper really will have a contribution to make. 1.13 For each section,think about how you can highlight your key findings While you are planning what to put in each section,think of where and how you can highlight your contribution.It may help you to imagine that the reader has asked you these questions: 1.what problem are you trying to solve /investigate? 2.how did you solve investigate it? 3.how does your solution /investigation differ from previous approaches? 4.what did you discover? 5.how do your findings differ from what is already in the literature,and what do they mean? Readers generally read the Title and Abstract of a paper first,followed by the Discussion;though some may just look at your figures and tables!However,you cannot be sure at which section your readers will begin reading,so they need access to the answers to these questions in most or all the sections.Look at other papers in your chosen journal (Sect.1.5)and at your model paper(Sect.1.7)to see how the authors deal with such questions.Clearly,the emphasis you put on answering
12 1 Planning and Preparation You know implicitly what the importance of your findings are - after all, you may have been working for months and years on the project. But the reader does not know. You must give the reader a clear message. Analyzing the literature (Sect. 1.5), and discussing and presenting your findings to colleagues (Sects. 1.10 and 1.11) should help you to identify what your key findings are. Make a list of your key findings and choose the most important ones to fit the space you have available (i.e. the total word count allowed by your chosen journal). For each key finding decide if there is another possible explanation for what you have found. You can do this by looking in the literature again. Make sure you have not inserted any bias in your explanation of your findings. Next, write an explanation saying why you think each key finding is true. However, write your explanation in a way that shows you are open to other interpretations. The above suggestions should also help you to decide whether your planned paper really will have a contribution to make. 1.13 For each section, think about how you can highlight your key findings While you are planning what to put in each section, think of where and how you can highlight your contribution. It may help you to imagine that the reader has asked you these questions: 1. what problem are you trying to solve / investigate? 2. how did you solve / investigate it? 3. how does your solution / investigation differ from previous approaches? 4. what did you discover? 5. how do your findings differ from what is already in the literature, and what do they mean? Readers generally read the Title and Abstract of a paper first, followed by the Discussion; though some may just look at your figures and tables! However, you cannot be sure at which section your readers will begin reading, so they need access to the answers to these questions in most or all the sections. Look at other papers in your chosen journal (Sect. 1.5) and at your model paper (Sect. 1.7) to see how the authors deal with such questions. Clearly, the emphasis you put on answering
1.14 Always have the referees in mind 13 the questions will vary from section to section,and is likely to be greatest in the Abstract and Discussion,but consider covering it in the other sections too. When you revise your paper if you think you have done too much highlighting,then you can always remove a few sentences.But while drafting your paper if you constantly try to highlight your contribution,this will give you extra focus. Think of your paper as a product that you are trying to sell to the referee and journal. The clearer and more convincing you are,the more likely a journal will 'buy'your manuscript. For more on underlining your contribution see Chap.8. 1.14 Always have the referees in mind It is crucial to write your paper with the referees in mind.They are the ones that decide the fate (outcome)of your paper. Referee 1 (R1):Top experts currently working in your field These are the ones to whom most journal editors try to send manuscripts for review. They are the experts that know most about the topic and are therefore most suitable to carry out a peer review of your paper.They are also the ones who may have the least time and inclination to do such reviews,particularly as they may receive up to 10 requests per month for their services.Such referees tend to be most interested in whether the paper makes sense from a scientific point of view.They may be less concerned with language errors,provided such errors do not impede on their under- standing your paper.They do not normally have time to make a detailed analysis of every sentence you write. Referee 2(R2):Retired experts These referees are like RIs,but they have a lot more time on their hands,because they are no longer officially working.Because they have more time,they tend to enter into much greater detail,both from a scientific and language point of view. Referee 3(R3):PhD students With the advent of so many online journals,more and more papers are being pub- lished every day.This means that top experts are in great demand.Rather than refusing an editor's request for them to do a review,they sometimes ask permission
1.14 Always have the referees in mind 13 the questions will vary from section to section, and is likely to be greatest in the Abstract and Discussion, but consider covering it in the other sections too. When you revise your paper if you think you have done too much highlighting, then you can always remove a few sentences. But while drafting your paper if you constantly try to highlight your contribution, this will give you extra focus. Think of your paper as a product that you are trying to sell to the referee and journal. The clearer and more convincing you are, the more likely a journal will ‘buy’ your manuscript. For more on underlining your contribution see Chap. 8. 1.14 Always have the referees in mind It is crucial to write your paper with the referees in mind. They are the ones that decide the fate (outcome) of your paper. Referee 1 (R1): Top experts currently working in your field These are the ones to whom most journal editors try to send manuscripts for review. They are the experts that know most about the topic and are therefore most suitable to carry out a peer review of your paper. They are also the ones who may have the least time and inclination to do such reviews, particularly as they may receive up to 10 requests per month for their services. Such referees tend to be most interested in whether the paper makes sense from a scientific point of view. They may be less concerned with language errors, provided such errors do not impede on their understanding your paper. They do not normally have time to make a detailed analysis of every sentence you write. Referee 2 (R2): Retired experts These referees are like R1s, but they have a lot more time on their hands, because they are no longer officially working. Because they have more time, they tend to enter into much greater detail, both from a scientific and language point of view. Referee 3 (R3): PhD students With the advent of so many online journals, more and more papers are being published every day. This means that top experts are in great demand. Rather than refusing an editor’s request for them to do a review, they sometimes ask permission