4 1 Planning and Preparation What the experts say From note taking to publishing to teaching,language is the tool that gives sense to scientific activity.Whatever scientists do or observe,everything they come to know or to hypothesize,is mediated through language. Robert Goldbort,Writing for Science The writing of an accurate,understandable paper is just as important as the research itself. Robert A Day,How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper Writing helps you to learn.Writing is not simply a task to be done once research or other preparation is completed-it can be an integral part of the work progress. Nicholas Highman,Handbook of Writing for the Mathematical Sciences
4 1 Planning and Preparation What the experts say From note taking to publishing to teaching, language is the tool that gives sense to scientific activity. Whatever scientists do or observe, everything they come to know or to hypothesize, is mediated through language. Robert Goldbort, Writing for Science The writing of an accurate, understandable paper is just as important as the research itself. Robert A Day, How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper Writing helps you to learn. Writing is not simply a task to be done once research or other preparation is completed - it can be an integral part of the work progress. Nicholas Highman, Handbook of Writing for the Mathematical Sciences
1.3 Choose an appropriate journal,preferably with a high impact factor 5 1.1 Think about why you want to publish your research You will be more motivated to write a good paper,if you have thought about exactly why you want to have your research published.One of your reasons will probably be because you believe you can make a contribution to a gap in the current knowl- edge base of your field.It helps if you can write down concisely what this contribu- tion is,and then double check that your proposed contribution really is original(see Sect.1.6). 1.2 Give yourself enough time to plan and write your manuscript You may have spent three years doing your research.Dedicating only three days or even three weeks to your manuscript makes little sense if it means that your paper will probably be initially rejected. Allow at least twice as much time as you think it will take. 1.3 Choose an appropriate journal,preferably with a high impact factor If you have never written a paper before and your supervisor has not indicated a specific journal where he/she would like you to publish,it is a good idea to ask colleagues in your research group what they read and what sort of publications they aspire to publish in. Even if you are writing a paper for the first time,it does not mean that it will only be suitable for a marginal or not very well known journal.Your progress in aca- demia very much depends on your ability to publish in journals that have a high impact factor. An impact factor is a measure of how prestigious a journal is.The higher the impact factor,the more widely read the journal is,and the more likely other researchers will cite your paper.Tables of impact factors which rank all the peer-reviewed journals in the world are available on the Net,you can use Google Scholar to help you find them. However,given the difficulties of getting published in a high impact journal (Sect.20.14),you might consider opting for a short article or a 'letter'.A literature review or a methodological text is often publishable.For instance,if you are studying medicine,you could consider writing a clinical review-a 2,500 word
1.3 Choose an appropriate journal, preferably with a high impact factor 5 1.1 Think about why you want to publish your research You will be more motivated to write a good paper, if you have thought about exactly why you want to have your research published. One of your reasons will probably be because you believe you can make a contribution to a gap in the current knowledge base of your field. It helps if you can write down concisely what this contribution is, and then double check that your proposed contribution really is original (see Sect. 1.6). 1.2 Give yourself enough time to plan and write your manuscript You may have spent three years doing your research. Dedicating only three days or even three weeks to your manuscript makes little sense if it means that your paper will probably be initially rejected. Allow at least twice as much time as you think it will take. 1.3 Choose an appropriate journal, preferably with a high impact factor If you have never written a paper before and your supervisor has not indicated a specific journal where he/she would like you to publish, it is a good idea to ask colleagues in your research group what they read and what sort of publications they aspire to publish in. Even if you are writing a paper for the first time, it does not mean that it will only be suitable for a marginal or not very well known journal. Your progress in academia very much depends on your ability to publish in journals that have a high impact factor. An impact factor is a measure of how prestigious a journal is. The higher the impact factor, the more widely read the journal is, and the more likely other researchers will cite your paper. Tables of impact factors which rank all the peer-reviewed journals in the world are available on the Net, you can use Google Scholar to help you find them. However, given the difficulties of getting published in a high impact journal (Sect. 20.14), you might consider opting for a short article or a ‘letter’. A literature review or a methodological text is often publishable. For instance, if you are studying medicine, you could consider writing a clinical review - a 2,500 word
6 1 Planning and Preparation article which is essentially a review of the management of important and common problems.Many disciplines have such an equivalent. When you have chosen three or four possible journals,look at their styles and think about their audience-what do the editors and readers expect from the articles (see Sect.1.7)? You could try to insert your paper into an ongoing discussion that is currently being covered in the journal.This approach may increase the chances of getting your paper approved by the editor. The topic you choose to write about is obviously related to the journal where you want to publish.Occasionally it may be worth choosing the journal first(rather than your exact topic),and then deciding which angle of your research to focus on so that it will match the expectations of your chosen journal. 1.4 Download the instructions for authors from your chosen journal AND from a high impact journal in the same field Each journal has its own requirements and style guide.These instructions tend to have different titles,for example:'instructions for authors','notes for authors', 'author guidelines'.They often appear under a page called 'author resources'. The guidelines include: types of titles that are acceptable structure of paper-for example,is the review of the literature near the begin- ning of the article or at the end?Are the Results included in the Discussion or in a separate section?Is there a Conclusions section? layout(including how the Abstract should be presented-one long paragraph, or 5-6 short paragraphs) structure of sections-some journals prescribe exactly how certain sections (most commonly the Discussion)are organized,and what subheadings should be included use of passive rather than personal style (we,/ ·how to make citations how to arrange the bibliography ·use of key words American or British spelling
6 1 Planning and Preparation article which is essentially a review of the management of important and common problems. Many disciplines have such an equivalent. When you have chosen three or four possible journals, look at their styles and think about their audience – what do the editors and readers expect from the articles (see Sect. 1.7)? You could try to insert your paper into an ongoing discussion that is currently being covered in the journal. This approach may increase the chances of getting your paper approved by the editor. The topic you choose to write about is obviously related to the journal where you want to publish. Occasionally it may be worth choosing the journal first (rather than your exact topic), and then deciding which angle of your research to focus on so that it will match the expectations of your chosen journal. 1.4 Download the instructions for authors from your chosen journal AND from a high impact journal in the same field Each journal has its own requirements and style guide. These instructions tend to have different titles, for example: ‘instructions for authors’, ‘notes for authors’, ‘author guidelines’. They often appear under a page called ‘author resources’. The guidelines include: • types of titles that are acceptable • structure of paper – for example, is the review of the literature near the beginning of the article or at the end? Are the Results included in the Discussion or in a separate section? Is there a Conclusions section? • layout (including how the Abstract should be presented – one long paragraph, or 5–6 short paragraphs) • structure of sections - some journals prescribe exactly how certain sections (most commonly the Discussion) are organized, and what subheadings should be included • use of passive rather than personal style (we, I) • how to make citations • how to arrange the bibliography • use of key words • American or British spelling
1.5 Read and analyze papers for your literature review,and note how they are structured 7 It is vital that you rigorously follow your chosen journal's instructions to authors.So download these instructions from the journal's website before you start writing. If you opt for a low impact journal,you will still find it very useful to look at the instructions of an equivalent high impact journal.Higher impact journals tend to have better author resources,which are useful for all authors,not just for those in the specific field of the journal itself. If no journals in your discipline offer such resources,then I suggest that you look on the 'Welcome to resources for authors'page of the website of the British Medical Journal (bmj.com),one of the world's most prestigious journals. Even if you are not a medical researcher,the resources you will find there are very helpful. The medical community has made a concerted effort to improve the quality of papers published in its journals.So reading one or two medical papers could help you learn techniques for clear structure and clear concise writing. 1.5 Read and analyze papers for your literature review, and note how they are structured Once you have chosen your journal,look at the most frequently cited papers to see how the authors rationalize the various steps of their research.Try to use papers that you will probably quote in your section on the review of the literature, and which are highly relevant to your topic and/or classic papers in your general field. For example,you could create a table with some or all of the following headings: .problem that the research addresses .background information and relevant references .elements that validate the level of innovation of the research conceptual model,methodology or procedure that the research takes into consideration .materials,equipment and software used .method used and the operational steps that the author carried out results achieved .analysis and interpretation of these results .strengths and weaknesses of the research,the insights demonstrated implications for further research
1.5 Read and analyze papers for your literature review, and note how they are structured 7 It is vital that you rigorously follow your chosen journal’s instructions to authors. So download these instructions from the journal’s website before you start writing. If you opt for a low impact journal, you will still find it very useful to look at the instructions of an equivalent high impact journal. Higher impact journals tend to have better author resources, which are useful for all authors, not just for those in the specific field of the journal itself. If no journals in your discipline offer such resources, then I suggest that you look on the ‘Welcome to resources for authors’ page of the website of the British Medical Journal (bmj.com), one of the world’s most prestigious journals. Even if you are not a medical researcher, the resources you will find there are very helpful. The medical community has made a concerted effort to improve the quality of papers published in its journals. So reading one or two medical papers could help you learn techniques for clear structure and clear concise writing. 1.5 Read and analyze papers for your literature review, and note how they are structured Once you have chosen your journal, look at the most frequently cited papers to see how the authors rationalize the various steps of their research. Try to use papers that you will probably quote in your section on the review of the literature, and which are highly relevant to your topic and/or classic papers in your general field. For example, you could create a table with some or all of the following headings: ■ problem that the research addresses ■ background information and relevant references ■ elements that validate the level of innovation of the research ■ conceptual model, methodology or procedure that the research takes into consideration ■ materials, equipment and software used ■ method used and the operational steps that the author carried out ■ results achieved ■ analysis and interpretation of these results ■ strengths and weaknesses of the research, the insights demonstrated ■ implications for further research
8 1 Planning and Preparation Then you can fill in your table with brief notes for each of the papers you have analyzed.This analysis should help you to: 1.write your own literature review,because after this analysis you will be very familiar with the literature 2.identify the differences in other researchers'approaches and results com- pared to your research 3.note down the strengths and weaknesses(including possibly bias)in the work of others These three points should enable you to understand in what ways your research is unique,innovative,interesting and useful,and how it extends what is already in the literature.Your aim is to find a knowledge gap to fill If you have done a very thorough literature search,then another publishing oppor- tunity for you is to write a literature review. 1.6 Identify what the editor is looking for Read as many papers as you can from your chosen journal.This should help you to gain a clearer picture of what the editors of the journal are looking for to enable them to keep their readership levels high.Below are some of the typical things that editors hope to find in manuscripts. TYPE OF PAPER Original research,or a systematic review,or a position paper etc. (for more on the various types of paper consult Google Scholar or Wikipedia) SUBJECT Hot topic (contemporary issues).original and innovative;or controversial;or classic AIM Clarity of purpose,ie.the research objectives are clear RESEARCH Well conducted,methodology clear,ethical,reproducible,no bias. limitations admitted RESULTS In line with research objective;entirely new or confirmation of other results already published in the same journal;not too broad as to be meaningless:can be generalized outside your very specific field LENGTH OF PAPER Short or long STYLE Personal (we,1),or impersonal(exclusively passive form),or mix (personal and impersonal) Sometimes journals have themed or special issues on specific topics.These spe- cial issues are announced many months in advance of publication.Keep a look out for an issue that covers your specific area-it may be the perfect opportunity for you
8 1 Planning and Preparation Then you can fill in your table with brief notes for each of the papers you have analyzed. This analysis should help you to: 1. write your own literature review, because after this analysis you will be very familiar with the literature 2. identify the differences in other researchers’ approaches and results compared to your research 3. note down the strengths and weaknesses (including possibly bias) in the work of others These three points should enable you to understand in what ways your research is unique, innovative, interesting and useful, and how it extends what is already in the literature. Your aim is to find a knowledge gap to fill. If you have done a very thorough literature search, then another publishing opportunity for you is to write a literature review. 1.6 Identify what the editor is looking for Read as many papers as you can from your chosen journal. This should help you to gain a clearer picture of what the editors of the journal are looking for to enable them to keep their readership levels high. Below are some of the typical things that editors hope to find in manuscripts. type of paper Original research, or a systematic review, or a position paper etc. (for more on the various types of paper consult Google Scholar or Wikipedia) subject Hot topic (contemporary issues), original and innovative; or controversial; or classic aim Clarity of purpose, i.e. the research objectives are clear research Well conducted, methodology clear, ethical, reproducible, no bias, limitations admitted results In line with research objective; entirely new or confirmation of other results already published in the same journal; not too broad as to be meaningless; can be generalized outside your very specific field length of paper Short or long style Personal (we, I), or impersonal (exclusively passive form), or mix (personal and impersonal) Sometimes journals have themed or special issues on specific topics. These special issues are announced many months in advance of publication. Keep a look out for an issue that covers your specific area - it may be the perfect opportunity for you