Stable-Storage Implementation Maintain multiple copies of each block on separate disks copies can be at remote sites to protect against disasters such as fire or flooding. Failure during data transfer can still result in inconsistent copies:Block transfer can result in Successful completion Partial failure:destination block has incorrect information Total failure:destination block was never updated Protecting storage media from failure during data transfer(one solution): 。 Execute output operation as follows (assuming two copies of each block): 1.Write the information onto the first physical block. 2.When the first write successfully completes,write the same information onto the second physical block. 3.The output is completed only after the second write successfully completes. Database System Concepts-7th Edition 19.6 @Silberschatz,Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7 19.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan th Edition Stable-Storage Implementation ▪ Maintain multiple copies of each block on separate disks • copies can be at remote sites to protect against disasters such as fire or flooding. ▪ Failure during data transfer can still result in inconsistent copies: Block transfer can result in • Successful completion • Partial failure: destination block has incorrect information • Total failure: destination block was never updated ▪ Protecting storage media from failure during data transfer (one solution): • Execute output operation as follows (assuming two copies of each block): 1. Write the information onto the first physical block. 2. When the first write successfully completes, write the same information onto the second physical block. 3. The output is completed only after the second write successfully completes
Protecting storage media from failure (Cont.) Copies of a block may differ due to failure during output operation. To recover from failure: 1.First find inconsistent blocks: 1.Expensive solution:Compare the two copies of every disk block 2.Better solution: Record in-progress disk writes on non-volatile storage(Flash, Non-volatile RAM or special area of disk). Use this information during recovery to find blocks that may be inconsistent,and only compare copies of these. Used in hardware RAID systems 2.If either copy of an inconsistent block is detected to have an error (bad checksum),overwrite it by the other copy.If both have no error, but are different,overwrite the second block by the first block. Database System Concepts-7th Edition 19.7 ©Silberscha乜，Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7 19.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan th Edition Protecting storage media from failure (Cont.) ▪ Copies of a block may differ due to failure during output operation. ▪ To recover from failure: 1. First find inconsistent blocks: 1. Expensive solution: Compare the two copies of every disk block. 2. Better solution: • Record in-progress disk writes on non-volatile storage (Flash, Non-volatile RAM or special area of disk). • Use this information during recovery to find blocks that may be inconsistent, and only compare copies of these. • Used in hardware RAID systems 2. If either copy of an inconsistent block is detected to have an error (bad checksum), overwrite it by the other copy. If both have no error, but are different, overwrite the second block by the first block
Data Access Physical blocks are those blocks residing on the disk. Buffer blocks are the blocks residing temporarily in main memory. ■ Block movements between disk and main memory are initiated through the following two operations: input(B)transfers the physical block B to main memory. output(B)transfers the buffer block B to the disk,and replaces the appropriate physical block there. We assume,for simplicity,that each data item fits in,and is stored inside, a single block. Database System Concepts-7th Edition 19.8 ©Silberscha乜，Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7 19.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan th Edition Data Access ▪ Physical blocks are those blocks residing on the disk. ▪ Buffer blocks are the blocks residing temporarily in main memory. ▪ Block movements between disk and main memory are initiated through the following two operations: • input (B) transfers the physical block B to main memory. • output (B) transfers the buffer block B to the disk, and replaces the appropriate physical block there. ▪ We assume, for simplicity, that each data item fits in, and is stored inside, a single block
Data Access (Cont.) ■ Each transaction T has its private work-area in which local copies of all data items accessed and updated by it are kept. Ti's local copy of a data item X is called x;. Transferring data items between system buffer blocks and its private work- area done by: read(X)assigns the value of data item X to the local variable x,. write(X)assigns the value of local variable x;to data item {X in the buffer block. Note:output(B)need not immediately follow write(X).System can perform the output operation when it deems fit. ■Transactions Must perform read(X)before accessing X for the first time(subsequent reads can be from local copy) write()can be executed at any time before the transaction commits Database System Concepts-7th Edition 19.9 @Silberschatz,Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7 19.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan th Edition Data Access (Cont.) ▪ Each transaction Ti has its private work-area in which local copies of all data items accessed and updated by it are kept. • Ti 's local copy of a data item X is called xi . ▪ Transferring data items between system buffer blocks and its private workarea done by: • read(X) assigns the value of data item X to the local variable xi . • write(X) assigns the value of local variable xi to data item {X} in the buffer block. • Note: output(BX) need not immediately follow write(X). System can perform the output operation when it deems fit. ▪ Transactions • Must perform read(X) before accessing X for the first time (subsequent reads can be from local copy) • write(X) can be executed at any time before the transaction commits
Example of Data Access buffer Buffer Block A input(A) A Buffer Block B B output(B) read(X) write(Y) ×2☐ y work area work area ofT1 of T2 memory disk Database System Concepts-7th Edition 19.10 @Silberschatz,Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7 19.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan th Edition Example of Data Access