Translation( Translate each of the following passage into Chinese 翻译 (将下列每段英文翻译成中文) Chapter 1 Summary 蔡信杰03391004陈彬03391005 1, Public finance also known as public sector economics or public economics, focuses on the taxing and spending activities of government and their influence on the allocation of resources and distribution of income 财政学,即公共经济学,焦点是税收和政府支出以及它们在分配资源和分配收入上的影响。 2, Public finance economists analyze both actual policies and develop guidelines for governmen t activities. In the latter role, economists are influenced by their attitudes toward the role of government in society 财政学同时为政府行为分析现有方针和发展知道思路。在未来作用中,经济受到在社会中有利于政府 的关注者的影响。 3, In all organic view of society, individuals are valued only by their contribution to the realization of social goals. These goals are determined by the government. 在一种有机的社会观中,个别价值只是由它们对实现政府目标所做出贡献来评价的。而这些目标是由 政府来决定的。 4, In a mechanistic view of society, government is a contrivance erected to further individual goals. If is not clear how the government can reconcile sometimes conflicting individual goals. 在一种机械的社会观中,政府是一个为个别长远目标而树立的设备。而政府是如何调节有时可能有矛 盾的个别目标尚不明确 5, Individual decision making is the focus of much economies and is consistent with the mechanistic view of society adopted in this book. This does not eliminate much controversy over the appropriate role of the government in our economic. 独立地作决定是很多经济学方面的重点,也是和本书中所采用的机械的社会观相一致的,这不会除去 很多关于政府应在经济学中适合扮演的角色的争论 6, The Constitution embodies constraints on federal and state government economic activity. 宪法体现了联盟政府和国家在经济活动中的强制性 7, The federal government may effectively undertake any expenditures it whishes and may use debt and taxes to finance them. The federal government may not discriminate among states when choosing tax rates and may not place a levy on state exports. The 16 Amendment empowers the federal government to tax personal incomes. 联盟政府可以有效地担任所有它希望的和可以用债和税来扣供的费用。联盟政府在当选择税率时不 会对州之间产生歧视,而且不会对州征收出口税。第16次修正法案授权联盟政府对个人收入征税 8, State government are forbidden to levy tariffs on imports discriminate against outsides residents, or tax other states'products Most states have balanced budget requirement. 国家是被禁止对进口征收关税,禁止歧视外国居民且禁止对他国产品征税。很多州已经平衡了预算需 9, All common measures of the size of government-employees, expenditures, revenues, etc.-involve some deficiency. In particular, these items miss the impact of regulatory costs. Nonetheless, there is strong evidence that the impact of the government on the allocation of national resources has increased over time
1 Translation ( Translate each of the following passage into Chinese ) 翻译 （将下列每段英文翻译成中文） Chapter 1 Summary 蔡信杰 03391004 陈 彬 03391005 1，Public finance ,also known as public sector economics or public economics, focuses on the taxing and spending activities of government and their influence on the allocation of resources and distribution of income. 财政学，即公共经济学，焦点是税收和政府支出以及它们在分配资源和分配收入上的影响。 2，Public finance economists analyze both actual policies and develop guidelines for government activities . In the latter role, economists are influenced by their attitudes toward the role of government in society. 财政学同时为政府行为分析现有方针和发展知道思路。在未来作用中，经济受到在社会中有利于政府 的关注者的影响。 3，In all organic view of society , individuals are valued only by their contribution to the realization of social goals. These goals are determined by the government. 在一种有机的社会观中，个别价值只是由它们对实现政府目标所做出贡献来评价的。而这些目标是由 政府来决定的。 4，In a mechanistic view of society ,government is a contrivance erected to further individual goals.If is not clear how the government can reconcile sometimes conflicting individual goals. 在一种机械的社会观中，政府是一个为个别长远目标而树立的设备。而政府是如何调节有时可能有矛 盾的个别目标尚不明确。 5， Individual decision making is the focus of much economics and is consistent with the mechanistic view of society adopted in this book .This does not eliminate much controversy over the appropriate role of the government in our economic. 独立地作决定是很多经济学方面的重点，也是和本书中所采用的机械的社会观相一致的，这不会除去 很多关于政府应在经济学中适合扮演的角色的争论。 6，The Constitution embodies constraints on federal and state government economic activity. 宪法体现了联盟政府和国家在经济活动中的强制性。 7，The federal government may effectively undertake any expenditures it whishes and may use debt and taxes to finance them .The federal government may not discriminate among states when choosing tax rates and may not place a levy on state exports .The 16th Amendment empowers the federal government to tax personal incomes. 联盟政府可以有效地担任所有它希望的和可以用债和税来扣供的费用。联盟政府在当选择税率时不 会对州之间产生歧视，而且不会对州征收出口税。第 16 次修正法案授权联盟政府对个人收入征税。 8，State government are forbidden to levy tariffs on imports ,discriminate against outsides residents, or tax other states’ products. Most states have balanced budget requirement. 国家是被禁止对进口征收关税，禁止歧视外国居民且禁止对他国产品征税。很多州已经平衡了预算需 求。 9，All common measures of the size of government-employees, expenditures, revenues, etc.-involve some deficiency. In particular, these items miss the impact of regulatory costs. Nonetheless , there is strong evidence that the impact of the government on the allocation of national resources has increased over time
所有对政府尺寸的普通测量方式一一雇员、费用、财源一一总包括了一些不足之处。在特定的情况下 这些项目忽视了规章费用所带来的影响。虽然如此,仍有很强的证据证明政府在国家策略上的布置的 影响已经增长超过时限。 10, The level of government expenditures has increased in both nominal and real absolute terms, in per capita terms, and as a percentage of gross domestic product 政府开支的水平已经在各政府预算时期,名义上和绝对数上都有了增长,如同国内产成品总体的百分 11, The share of defense spending in federal expenditure has fallen over time while Social Security ,public welfare, and payment on outstanding debt have increased in importance. The combination of entitlement programs and interest payments reduces yearly control over the level of expenditures. 着社会保障公共福利和巨大的债务偿还的比重的增加,国防支出占联邦总支出的比重在减少,政府 津贴计划和利息偿还总和逐年减少,使得总支出水平下降 12, Personal income and Social Security payroll taxes are currently the largest sources of government revenue.个人收入和社会安全工资税通常是政府最大的财税来源 CHAPTER2 Summary 陈瑜星03391009郭思03391017 1, Because economists generally cannot perform controlled experiments with the economy, the effects of economic policy are difficult to determine. 由于经济学家一般不能对经济进行可控实验,因而经济政策的影响难于确定。 2, Economic theory helps specify the factors that might affect a given kind of behavior. However, theory alone cannot say how important any particular factor is 经济理论有助于确定哪些因素可能影响某种行为,不过单凭理论不能说明任何具体因素的重要性 3, Empirical research attempts to measure both the directions and size of the effect of government policy changes on behavior Common types of empirical studies are interview studies, social and laboratory experiments, and econometric analysis. 经济研究试图测定政府政策变化对行为影响的方向和大小。经验研究一般类型有面谈,社会实验,实 验室实验和经济计量研究。 4, Interviews studies consist of directly asking people how various policies affect their behavior. However, people may not actually react to policies in the way they say they do 面谈研究是直接询问人们,各种政策如何影响他们的行为。然而,人们实际上可能不按其嘴上所说的 方式对政策作出反应。 5, Social experiments subject one group of people to some policy and compare their behavior with that of a control group. Problems can arise because: the experiment itself may affect people's behavior; it's difficult to obtain a random sample and social experiments are quite costly. 社会实验将一组人置于某种政策的影响下,将他们的行为与另外一组人的行为相比较。但问题也会同 时产生,因为这种实验本身就可能影响人们的行为,而且难于取得随机样本,同时社会实验的成本很 6, Laboratory experiments are used to study some types of economic decision 实验室实验用来研究某些经济决策 7, Econometrics is the statistical analysis of economic data In econometrics, the effects of various policies are inferred from observed behavior. 计量经济学是对经济数据的统计分析。在计量经济学中,各种政策的影响是根据观察到的行为推断出 2
2 所有对政府尺寸的普通测量方式――雇员、费用、财源――总包括了一些不足之处。在特定的情况下， 这些项目忽视了规章费用所带来的影响。虽然如此，仍有很强的证据证明政府在国家策略上的布置的 影响已经增长超过时限。 10，The level of government expenditures has increased in both nominal and real absolute terms, in per capita terms, and as a percentage of gross domestic product. 政府开支的水平已经在各政府预算时期，名义上和绝对数上都有了增长，如同国内产成品总体的百分 比一样。 11， The share of defense spending in federal expenditure has fallen over time ,while Social Security ,public welfare, and payment on outstanding debt have increased in importance . The combination of entitlement programs and interest payments reduces yearly control over the level of expenditures. 随着社会保障公共福利和巨大的债务偿还的比重的增加，国防支出占联邦总支出的比重在减少，政府 津贴计划和利息偿还总和逐年减少，使得总支出水平下降。 12，Personal income and Social Security payroll taxes are currently the largest sources of government revenue. 个人收入和社会安全工资税通常是政府最大的财税来源。 CHAPTER 2 Summary: 陈瑜星 03391009 郭思 03391017 1, Because economists generally cannot perform controlled experiments with the economy, the effects of economic policy are difficult to determine. 由于经济学家一般不能对经济进行可控实验，因而经济政策的影响难于确定。 2，Economic theory helps specify the factors that might affect a given kind of behavior. However, theory alone cannot say how important any particular factor is. 经济理论有助于确定哪些因素可能影响某种行为，不过单凭理论不能说明任何具体因素的重要性。 3，Empirical research attempts to measure both the directions and size of the effect of government policy changes on behavior. Common types of empirical studies are interview studies, social and laboratory experiments , and econometric analysis. 经济研究试图测定政府政策变化对行为影响的方向和大小。经验研究一般类型有面谈，社会实验，实 验室实验和经济计量研究。 4，Interviews studies consist of directly asking people how various policies affect their behavior. However, people may not actually react to policies in the way they say they do. 面谈研究是直接询问人们，各种政策如何影响他们的行为。然而，人们实际上可能不按其嘴上所说的 方式对政策作出反应。 5，Social experiments subject one group of people to some policy and compare their behavior with that of a control group. Problems can arise because: the experiment itself may affect people’s behavior; it’s difficult to obtain a random sample ; and social experiments are quite costly. 社会实验将一组人置于某种政策的影响下，将他们的行为与另外一组人的行为相比较。但问题也会同 时产生，因为这种实验本身就可能影响人们的行为，而且难于取得随机样本，同时社会实验的成本很 高。 6, Laboratory experiments are used to study some types of economic decisions . 实验室实验用来研究某些经济决策。 7, Econometrics is the statistical analysis of economic data .In econometrics, the effects of various policies are inferred from observed behavior. 计量经济学是对经济数据的统计分析。在计量经济学中，各种政策的影响是根据观察到的行为推断出
来的。 8, Multiple regression analysis is used to pick the best"parameters for an econometric model. Knowing the parameters allows one to predict the effects of policy changes. 多元回归分析用来为经济计量模型挑选“最佳的”参数。知道这些参数后,我们就可以预测政策变化 的影响 9, Econometrics has some pitfalls. Misleading results occur if data from greatly dissimilar groups are combined; if important variables are omitted; if the wrong mathematical form is adopted; if variables are incorrectly measured; or if there is simultaneous causation between variables. 计量经济学存在一些缺陷。如果把差异很大的群体的数据合并在一起,如果遗漏了重要变量,如果采 用了错误的数学形式,如果不正确地测度了变量,如果变量之间存在因果关系,那么,就会得出错误 的结果。 Chapter 3 Tools of Normative Analysis 何玉琼03391020胡毅03391022 1, Welfare economics is the study of the desirability of alternative economic states. 福利经济学研究不同经济状态的合意性。 2, A Pareto efficient allocation occurs when no person can be made better off without making another person worse off. Pareto efficiency requires that each persons marginal rate of substitution between two commodities equal the marginal rate of transformation. Pareto efficiency is the economists benchmark of efficient performance for an economy 如果不使他人的境况变坏就不能使一个人的境况变好,这就实现了帕累托效率配置。帕累托效率要求 每个人对两种商品的边际替代率等于边际转换率。帕累托效率是经济学家判断经济是否有效运行的标 准 3, The First Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that, under certain conditions. competitive market mechanisms lead to Pareto efficient outcomes. 福利经济学的第一基本定理指出,在某些条件下,竞争市场机制会产生帕雷托效率结果。 Despite its appeal, Pareto efficiency has no obvious claim as an ethical norm. Society may prefer an inefficient allocation on the basis of equity or some other criterion. This provides one possible reason for government intervention in the economy 尽管帕雷托效率颇有吸引力,但并没有明确的理由可以作为伦理标准。基于公平或其他某种标准,社 会也许倾向于无效率的配置。这就为政府干预经济提供了一种可能的理由 5, A social welfare function summarizes society's preferences concerning the utility of each of its members. It may be used to find the allocation of resources that maximizes social welfare 社会福利函数概括的是对每一社会成员效用的社会偏好,用来寻找使社会福利最大化的资源配置 6, The Second Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that society can attain any Pareto-efficient allocation of resources by making a suitable assignment of initial endowments and then letting people freely trade with each other. 福利经济学的第二基本定理指出,社会通过适当地安排初始资源禀赋,然后让人们彼此自由地交易, 就可以实现帕雷托效率资源配置 7, A second reason for government intervention is market failure, which may occur in the presence of market power or when markets do not exis 政府干预的第二个理由是市场失灵。如果存在市场影响力或者市场不存在,就会出现市场失灵
3 来的。 8，Multiple regression analysis is used to pick the “best” parameters for an econometric model. Knowing the parameters allows one to predict the effects of policy changes. 多元回归分析用来为经济计量模型挑选“最佳的”参数。知道这些参数后，我们就可以预测政策变化 的影响。 9，Econometrics has some pitfalls. Misleading results occur if data from greatly dissimilar groups are combined; if important variables are omitted; if the wrong mathematical form is adopted; if variables are incorrectly measured; or if there is simultaneous causation between variables. 计量经济学存在一些缺陷。如果把差异很大的群体的数据合并在一起，如果遗漏了重要变量，如果采 用了错误的数学形式，如果不正确地测度了变量，如果变量之间存在因果关系，那么，就会得出错误 的结果。 Chapter 3 Tools of Normative Analysis 何玉琼 03391020 胡 毅 03391022 Summary 1，Welfare economics is the study of the desirability of alternative economic states. 福利经济学研究不同经济状态的合意性。 2，A Pareto efficient allocation occurs when no person can be made better off without making another person worse off. Pareto efficiency requires that each person’s marginal rate of substitution between two commodities equal the marginal rate of transformation. Pareto efficiency is the economist’s benchmark of efficient performance for an economy. 如果不使他人的境况变坏就不能使一个人的境况变好，这就实现了帕累托效率配置。帕累托效率要求， 每个人对两种商品的边际替代率等于边际转换率。帕累托效率是经济学家判断经济是否有效运行的标 准。 3，The First Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that, under certain conditions, competitive market mechanisms lead to Pareto efficient outcomes. 福利经济学的第一基本定理指出，在某些条件下，竞争市场机制会产生帕雷托效率结果。 4，Despite its appeal, Pareto efficiency has no obvious claim as an ethical norm. Society may prefer an inefficient allocation on the basis of equity or some other criterion. This provides one possible reason for government intervention in the economy. 尽管帕雷托效率颇有吸引力，但并没有明确的理由可以作为伦理标准。基于公平或其他某种标准，社 会也许倾向于无效率的配置。这就为政府干预经济提供了一种可能的理由。 5，A social welfare function summarizes society’s preferences concerning the utility of each of its members. It may be used to find the allocation of resources that maximizes social welfare. 社会福利函数概括的是对每一社会成员效用的社会偏好，用来寻找使社会福利最大化的资源配置。 6，The Second Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that society can attain any Pareto-efficient allocation of resources by making a suitable assignment of initial endowments and then letting people freely trade with each other. 福利经济学的第二基本定理指出，社会通过适当地安排初始资源禀赋，然后让人们彼此自由地交易， 就可以实现帕雷托效率资源配置。 7，A second reason for government intervention is market failure, which may occur in the presence of market power or when markets do not exist. 政府干预的第二个理由是市场失灵。如果存在市场影响力或者市场不存在，就会出现市场失灵
8, The fact that the market does not allocate resources perfectly does not necessarily mean the government can do better. Each case must be evaluated on its own merits. 市场不能完全配置资源,不一定就意味着政府能做得更好、具体情况要具体分析 9, Welfare economics is based on an individualistic social philosophy. It does not pay much attention to the processes used to achieve results. Thus, although it provides a coherent and useful framework for analyzing policy, welfare economics is not universally accepted 福利经济学的基础是个人主义的社会哲学,对取得结果的过程并不太在意。因此,尽管福利经济学为 政策分析提供了一个系统而有用的框架,但还是有些争议 Chapter4 Public Goods Summary摘要391035李鑫03391030鞠艳双 1, Public goods are characterized by nonrivalness and nonexcludability in consumption. 公共产品的特征是消费的非竞争性和非排他性。 2, Thus, each person consumes the same amount, but not necessarily the preferred amount, of the public good.因此,每个人都消费同样数量的公共产品,但并不一定是其所偏好的数量 3, Efficient provision of public goods requires that the sum of the individual MRSS equal the MRT, unlike private goods where each MRS equals the mrt 公共产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率之和等于边际转换率,而不像私人产品, 私人产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率等于边际转换率 4, Market mechanisms are unlikely to provide nonrival goods efficiently, even if they are excludable 市场机制不可能有效地提供在消费上具有非竞争性的产品,即使它们在消费上具有非排他性 5, Casual observation and laboratory studies indicate that people do not fully exploit free riding possibilities.随机观察和实验室研究显示,人们并没有充分地利用免费搭便车的机会 6, Nonetheless, in certain cases, free riding is a significant problem 然而,在某些特定的情况下,免费搭车行为会是一个很严重的问题。 7, Public goods can be provided privately, and private goods can be provided publicly 公共产品可以由私人提供,私人产品也可以由公共提供 8, Even in cases where public provision of a good is selected, a choice between public and private production must be made. 即使在某种物品由公共提供的情况下,还是要在公共生产和私人生产之间做出选择。 9, A key factor in determining whether public or private production will be more efficient is the market environment.决定是由公共生产还是私人生产更有效率的关键因素是市场环境 10, Another important question is the extent to which complete contracts can be written with private sector service providers. 另一个重要的问题是,与私人部门服务的提供者签订合同的完备程度 11, Although education is generally publicly provided, it is not clear that education is a public good 尽管教育通常是由公共提供的,但是,教育是否是公共产品尚不清楚 12, Moreover, statistical research suggests that the link between spending and educational outcomes is tenuous.而且,统计研究表明,支出和教育结果之间的关系是相当含糊的 13, Although general increases in educational expenditure to reduce classroom size seem unlikely to
4 8，The fact that the market does not allocate resources perfectly does not necessarily mean the government can do better. Each case must be evaluated on its own merits. 市场不能完全配置资源，不一定就意味着政府能做得更好、具体情况要具体分析。 9，Welfare economics is based on an individualistic social philosophy. It does not pay much attention to the processes used to achieve results. Thus, although it provides a coherent and useful framework for analyzing policy, welfare economics is not universally accepted. 福利经济学的基础是个人主义的社会哲学，对取得结果的过程并不太在意。因此，尽管福利经济学为 政策分析提供了一个系统而有用的框架，但还是有些争议。 Chapter 4 Public Goods Summary 摘要 03391035 李 鑫 03391030 鞠艳双 1，Public goods are characterized by nonrivalness and nonexcludability in consumption. 公共产品的特征是消费的非竞争性和非排他性。 2，Thus, each person consumes the same amount, but not necessarily the preferred amount, of the public good. 因此，每个人都消费同样数量的公共产品，但并不一定是其所偏好的数量。 3，Efficient provision of public goods requires that the sum of the individual MRSs equal the MRT, unlike private goods where each MRS equals the MRT. 公共产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率之和等于边际转换率，而不像私人产品， 私人产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率等于边际转换率。 4，Market mechanisms are unlikely to provide nonrival goods efficiently, even if they are excludable. 市场机制不可能有效地提供在消费上具有非竞争性的产品，即使它们在消费上具有非排他性。 5，Casual observation and laboratory studies indicate that people do not fully exploit free riding possibilities. 随机观察和实验室研究显示，人们并没有充分地利用免费搭便车的机会。 6，Nonetheless, in certain cases, free riding is a significant problem 然而，在某些特定的情况下，免费搭车行为会是一个很严重的问题。 7，Public goods can be provided privately, and private goods can be provided publicly 公共产品可以由私人提供，私人产品也可以由公共提供。 8，Even in cases where public provision of a good is selected, a choice between public and private production must be made. 即使在某种物品由公共提供的情况下，还是要在公共生产和私人生产之间做出选择。 9，Akey factor in determining whether public or private production will be more efficient is the market environment. 决定是由公共生产还是私人生产更有效率的关键因素是市场环境。 10，Another important question is the extent to which complete contracts can be written With private sector service providers. 另一个重要的问题是，与私人部门服务的提供者签订合同的完备程度。 11，Although education is generally publicly provided, it is not clear that education is a public good. 尽管教育通常是由公共提供的，但是，教育是否是公共产品尚不清楚。 12，Moreover, statistical research suggests that the link between spending and educational outcomes is tenuous. 而且，统计研究表明，支出和教育结果之间的关系是相当含糊的。 13，Although general increases in educational expenditure to reduce classroom size seem unlikely to
enhance educational performance, some targeted spending programs seem to be quite effective. 尽管为了缩小班级规模而使教育支出普遍増加看起来似乎并没有増加教育业绩,但是某些目标已经确 定的支出项目似乎还是很有成效的 14, In particular, well-designed early interventions appear to raise both future test scores and earnings. 特别是,那些经过精心设计的早期教育看来很可能提高了将来的考试成绩和收入。 15, Some economists are convinced that public schools would improve if they were subjected to 仿eimn-些经济学家相信,如果公立学校有竞争,那么他们会得到改进。 One proposal in that direction is a voucher system, under which financial support for education goes to the family of the student, not directly to the school 按照这种思路提出的一种建议是实行凭单制,也就是把教育的财政资助给予学生家庭,而不是直接拨 款给学校 17, The voucher could be redeemed at whatever qualified school was preferred by the Family 这种凭单足以支付家庭所选择的任何合格的学校的学费。 Chapter5 Summary0391040留丹鹤0391036林嘉俊 1, An externality occurs when the activity of one person affects another person outside the market mechanism. Externalities may generally be traced to the absence of enforceable property rights. 当一个人的活动在市场机制之外影响另一个人时,就产生了外部性。一般来说,外部性之所以存在, 是因为缺乏可行的产权。 2, Externalities cause market price to diverge from social cost, bringing about an inefficient allocation of resource. 外部性造成市场价格偏离社会成本,引起无效率的资源配置 3, The Coase Theorem indicates that private parties may bargain toward the efficient output if property rights are established. However, bargaining costs must be low and the source of the externality easily identified. 科斯定理表明,如果产权确立了,私人通过讨价还价可以达到效率产量,但是,讨价还价成本必须很 低,并且外部性原因也容易确认。 4,A Pigouvian tax is a tax levied on pollution in an amount equal to the marginal social damage at the efficient level. Such a tax gives the producer a private incentive to pollute the efficient amount. 庇古税为对污染课税的税收,税额等于效率产量水平时的边际社会损害,这种税使生产者产生私人动 机,使污染量不超过有效数量 5, A subsidy for pollution not produced can induce producers to pollute at the efficient level. However, subsidies can lead to too much production, are administratively difficult, and are regarded by some as ethically unappealing. 对不产生污染的生产进行补贴,会使生产者污染不超过效率水平,但补贴可导致生产过多,在管理上 很困难,并且有人认为它不符合道德规范 6, Pollution rights may be traded in markets, This fixes the total level of pollution, an advantage when administrators are uncertain how polluters will respond to Pigouvian taxes. 污染权可以在市场上进行交易,这可以固定污染的总水平,在管理者不能确定污染者对庇古税会如何 反应时,它具有优势。 7, Regulation is likely to be inefficient because the social value of pollution reduction varies across firms, locations, and the populace. Nevertheless, this is the most widespread form of environmental
5 enhance educational performance, some targeted spending programs seem to be quite effective. 尽管为了缩小班级规模而使教育支出普遍增加看起来似乎并没有增加教育业绩，但是某些目标已经确 定的支出项目似乎还是很有成效的。 14，In particular, well-designed early interventions appear to raise both future test scores and earnings. 特别是，那些经过精心设计的早期教育看来很可能提高了将来的考试成绩和收入。 15，Some economists are convinced that public schools would improve if they were subjected to competition. 一些经济学家相信，如果公立学校有竞争，那么他们会得到改进。 16，One proposal in that direction is a voucher system, under which financial support for education goes to the family of the student, not directly to the school. 按照这种思路提出的一种建议是实行凭单制，也就是把教育的财政资助给予学生家庭，而不是直接拨 款给学校。 17，The voucher could be redeemed at whatever qualified school was preferred by the Family 这种凭单足以支付家庭所选择的任何合格的学校的学费。 Chapter 5 Summary 03391040 留丹鹤 03391036 林嘉俊 1，An externality occurs when the activity of one person affects another person outside the market mechanism. Externalities may generally be traced to the absence of enforceable property rights. 当一个人的活动在市场机制之外影响另一个人时，就产生了外部性。一般来说，外部性之所以存在， 是因为缺乏可行的产权。 2，Externalities cause market price to diverge from social cost, bringing about an inefficient allocation of resource. 外部性造成市场价格偏离社会成本，引起无效率的资源配置。 3，The Coase Theorem indicates that private parties may bargain toward the efficient output if property rights are established. However, bargaining costs must be low and the source of the externality easily identified. 科斯定理表明，如果产权确立了，私人通过讨价还价可以达到效率产量，但是，讨价还价成本必须很 低，并且外部性原因也容易确认。 4，A Pigouvian tax is a tax levied on pollution in an amount equal to the marginal social damage at the efficient level . Such a tax gives the producer a private incentive to pollute the efficient amount. 庇古税为对污染课税的税收，税额等于效率产量水平时的边际社会损害，这种税使生产者产生私人动 机，使污染量不超过有效数量。 5，A subsidy for pollution not produced can induce producers to pollute at the efficient level. However, subsidies can lead to too much production, are administratively difficult,and are regarded by some as ethically unappealing. 对不产生污染的生产进行补贴，会使生产者污染不超过效率水平，但补贴可导致生产过多，在管理上 很困难，并且有人认为它不符合道德规范。 6，Pollution rights may be traded in markets, This fixes the total level of pollution ,an advantage when administrators are uncertain how polluters will respond to Pigouvian taxes. 污染权可以在市场上进行交易，这可以固定污染的总水平，在管理者不能确定污染者对庇古税会如何 反应时，它具有优势。 7，Regulation is likely to be inefficient because the social value of pollution reduction varies across firms, locations, and the populace. Nevertheless, this is the most widespread form of environmental