12. The Trojan war Summary 就是这张脸庞让千艘战船开拔,使特洛伊无顶的塔楼化为灰烬( Was this the face that launchd a thousand ships, and burnt the topless towers of ilium? 莎士比亚同时代的诗人克里斯托弗·马洛曾发出这样的感慨。虽然经考古发现得 到证实的特洛伊战争早已烟消灰灭,但荷马史诗所咏唱的英雄们的事迹却已成为 永恒。欣赏金苹果之争、帕里斯( Paris)的判定、海伦( Helen)的私奔、阿喀琉斯 ( Achilles)的愤怒、赫克托耳( Hector)的陨灭等故事常使我们沉浸在远古的幽思之 中,思考着英雄的命运及自己当下的生存状况 Selected Reading A Secret Concerning Thetis One of the first links in the chain of events which formed the prelude to the Trojan War was forged by Prometheus, the great benefactor of mankind. Prometheus, a cousin of Zeus, had given man fire, an element whose benefits had previously bee enjoyed solely by the gods, He had also instructed men to offer to the gods only the and bones of meat sacrifices, and to keep the best bit for themselves. To punish Prometheus, Zeus chained him to a rock high in the mountains and daily sent an eagle to eat his liver, which grew again by night According to some sources, Prometheus was eventually set free by Hercules but others state that he was released by Zeus when he finally agreed to tell him an important secret. This secret concerned the sea-nymph Thetis, who was so beautiful that she counted several gods among her suitors, including Poseidon and Zeus himself; however, a prophecy known only to Prometheus foretold that the son of Thetis was destined to be greater than his father. On learning this, Zeus rapidl abandoned the idea of fathering a son by thetis himself, and decided that she should marry the mortal Peleus instead their son would be achilles, the greatest of the greek heroes at Tro Thetis's Wedding and the apple of discord hetis at first resisted the advance of Peleus, changing into fire, serpents monsters and other forms, but he held tightly on to her through all her transformations and eventually she had to submit. All the gods and goddesses of Olympus save one were invited to the magnificent wedding of Peleus and Thetis; and in the middle of the feast, Eris, the only goddess who had been left out, burst in and threw among the guests the apple of discord, inscribed"for the fairest". This apple was claimed by three goddesses, Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Because they were unable to reach an agreement, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one, for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. eventually, Zeus was understandably reluctant to decide the issue himself, he sent the goddesses to have their beauty judged by the herdsman Paris on Mount Ida, outside the city of Troy on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Judgment of paris
64 12. The Trojan War Summary “就是这张脸庞让千艘战船开拔，使特洛伊无顶的塔楼化为灰烬(Was this the face that launch’d a thousand ships, and burnt the topless towers of Ilium?)”—— 莎士比亚同时代的诗人克里斯托弗·马洛曾发出这样的感慨。虽然经考古发现得 到证实的特洛伊战争早已烟消灰灭，但荷马史诗所咏唱的英雄们的事迹却已成为 永恒。欣赏金苹果之争、帕里斯(Paris)的判定、海伦(Helen)的私奔、阿喀琉斯 (Achilles)的愤怒、赫克托耳(Hector)的陨灭等故事常使我们沉浸在远古的幽思之 中，思考着英雄的命运及自己当下的生存状况。 Selected Reading A Secret Concerning Thetis One of the first links in the chain of events which formed the prelude to the Trojan War was forged by Prometheus, the great benefactor1 of mankind. Prometheus, a cousin of Zeus, had given man fire, an element whose benefits had previously been enjoyed solely by the gods, He had also instructed men to offer to the gods only the fat and bones of meat sacrifices, and to keep the best bit for themselves. To punish Prometheus, Zeus chained him to a rock high in the mountains and daily sent an eagle to eat his liver, which grew again by night. According to some sources, Prometheus was eventually set free by Hercules2 , but others state that he was released by Zeus when he finally agreed to tell him an important secret. This secret concerned the sea-nymph Thetis, who was so beautiful that she counted3 several gods among her suitors, including Poseidon and Zeus himself; however, a prophecy known only to Prometheus foretold that the son of Thetis was destined to be greater than his father. On learning this, Zeus rapidly abandoned the idea of fathering a son by Thetis himself, and decided that she should marry the mortal Peleus instead; their son would be Achilles, the greatest of the Greek heroes at Troy. Thetis’s Wedding and the Apple of Discord Thetis at first resisted the advance of Peleus, changing into fire, serpents, monsters and other forms, but he held tightly on to her through all her transformations and eventually she had to submit. All the gods and goddesses of Olympus save4 one were invited to the magnificent wedding of Peleus and Thetis; and in the middle of the feast, Eris, the only goddess who had been left out, burst in and threw among the guests the apple of discord, inscribed “for the fairest”. This apple was claimed by three goddesses, Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Because they were unable to reach an agreement, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one, for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus was understandably reluctant to decide the issue himself, he sent the goddesses to have their beauty judged by the herdsman Paris on Mount Ida, outside the city of Troy on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Judgment of Paris
Paris was a son of Priam, king of Troy, but when Priams wife Hecuba was pregnant with him. she dreamed she was giving birth to a torch from which streamed hissing serpents, so when the baby was born he was handed over to a servant with orders to take him out to mount Ida and kill him. The servant however instead of killing him, simply left him on the mountain to die; he was rescued by shepherds or herdsmen, and brought up to be one himself. As Paris was minding his flocks"on the mountain. hermes led the three goddesses to him for judgment. Each offered him a reward if he would choose her; Hera wealth and power Athena military prowess and wisdom, and Aphrodite the love of the most beautiful woman in the world. Awarding victory to Aphrodite, he incurred the undying wrath of the other two, who became henceforward implacable enemies of Troy. Shortly afterwards, Paris returned by chance to Troy, wess" in athletic contests and his amazingly handsome appearance aroused the interest of his parents, who soon established his identity and received him back with great joy The abduction of helen The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, the daughter of Zeus and Leda. Many kings and nobleman had wished to marry her, and before her mortal father, Tyndareus, announced the name of the successful suitor he made them all swear an oath to abide by helens choice and to come to the aid of her husband if she should ever be abducted Helen married Menelaus, king of Sparta, and by the time that Paris came to Sparta on a diplomatic mission they had a daughter, Hermione. Menelaus welcomed Paris into his home, but while the king was in Crete for the funeral of his uncle. paris repaid his hospitality by stealing Helen and escaping with her back to Troy. Helen,s part in this was explained in different ways by various sources ither she was abducted against her will, or Aphrodite drove her mad with desire for Paris, or most elaborate of all, she never went to Troy at all, and it was for the sake of a phantom that the greeks spent ten long years at war. Anyway, common readers would like to entertain the idea that the cause of the war was helen who had a"face that launchd a thousand ships The Expedition Sets Sail Menelaus summoned all Helen's former suitors, and all the other kings and noblemen of Greece, to help him mount an expedition against Troy to recover his wife The leader of the Greek force was Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and elder brother of
65 Paris was a son of Priam, king of Troy, but when Priam’s wife Hecuba was pregnant with him, she dreamed she was giving birth to a torch from which streamed hissing serpents, so when the baby was born, he was handed over to a servant with orders to take him out to Mount Ida and kill him. The servant, however, instead of killing him, simply left him on the mountain to die; he was rescued by shepherds or herdsmen, and brought up to be one himself. As Paris was minding his flocks5 on the mountain, Hermes led the three goddesses to him for judgment. Each offered him a reward if he would choose her; Hera wealth and power, Athena military prowess and wisdom, and Aphrodite the love of the most beautiful woman in the world. Awarding victory to Aphrodite, he incurred6 the undying wrath of the other two, who became henceforward implacable7 enemies of Troy. Shortly afterwards, Paris returned by chance to Troy, where his prowess8 in athletic contests and his amazingly handsome appearance aroused the interest of his parents, who soon established his identity and received him back with great joy. The Abduction of Helen The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, the daughter of Zeus and Leda. Many kings and nobleman had wished to marry her, and before her mortal father, Tyndareus, announced the name of the successful suitor, he made them all swear an oath to abide by Helen’s choice and to come to the aid of her husband if she should ever be abducted. Helen married Menelaus, king of Sparta, and by the time that Paris came to Sparta on a diplomatic mission they had a daughter, Hermione. Menelaus welcomed Paris into his home, but while the king was in Crete for the funeral of his uncle, Paris repaid his hospitality by stealing Helen and escaping with her back to Troy. Helen’s part in this was explained in different ways by various sources: either she was abducted against her will, or Aphrodite drove her mad with desire for Paris, or most elaborate9 of all, she never went to Troy at all, and it was for the sake of a phantom10 that the Greeks spent ten long years at war. Anyway, common readers would like to entertain the idea that the cause of the war was Helen who had a “face that launch’d a thousand ships”. The Expedition Sets Sail Menelaus summoned all Helen’s former suitors, and all the other kings and noblemen of Greece, to help him mount an expedition against Troy to recover his wife. The leader of the Greek force was Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and elder brother of
Menelaus. The greek heroes came from all over the mainland and the islands to the port of Aulis, the assembly point from which they planned to sail across the Aegean to Troy Some of the heroes came to Aulis more unwillingly than others. Odysseus, king of Ithaca, knew it had been prophesied that if he went to Troy he would not return for twenty years, and so he feigned madness when the herald Palamedes came to summon him, yoking two mules to a plough and driving them up and down the beach; but his ploy was revealed when Palamedes put Odysseus's infant son Telemachus in the way of the mules, and odysseus immediately reinedin his team Achilles's parents, Peleus and Thetis, were reluctant to let their young son join in the expedition, since they knew it was fated that if he went he would die at Troy. In an attempt to evade his destiny they sent him to Skyros, where, disguised as a girl, he mingled with the daughters of the king, Lykomedes. During his stay he married one of the daughters, Deidameia, who bore him a son, Neoptolemus Odysseus, however, discovered that the greeks would never capture Troy without the assistance of Achilles, and so he went to Skyros to fetch him. According to one version of the story, Odysseus disguised himself as a peddler, gained entrance to the court and spread out his wares before the women; among the jewels and textiles were weapon in which the young Achilles displayed a revealing interest. Another source describes how Odysseus arranged for the sound of a trumpet to be heard in the women's quarters: while the genuine daughters scattered in confusion, Achilles stood his ground and called for arms. His disguise dropped, Achilles was easily persuaded to accompany Odysseus back to Aulis, where the fleet was preparing to sail. The huge Greek force, whose greatest heroes were Agamemnon, Menelaus, Odysseus, Aias Diomedes and achilles, was ready to sail, but the wind held stubbornly against them Eventually the prophet Calchas revealed that the goddess Artemis demanded the sacrifice of Agamemnons daughter, Iphigeneia, before the wind could turn Agamemnon was horrified by this, but public opinion forced him to comply Iphigeneia, summoned on the pretext that she was to marry Achilles, was instead slain upon the altar. Some sources say that Artemis took pity on her and substituted a deer at the last moment; at all events the wind veered round, and the ships set sail The wrath of achilles The story of the iliad is, in fact, the story of Achilles, and of his quarrel with Agamemnon. At the opening of the liad the greeks had already been at Troy for nine years. They had sacked much of the surrounding countryside and skirmished sporadically ith any Trojans who had emerged from behind their massive fortifications. The Greeks were wearying of the campaign and irritated by their inability to score a decisive victory over Troy itself, when Achilles fell out with Agamemnon over a matter of honor. Agamemnon, as his share of the booty from a raid in which Achilles had played the leading part, had been allotted a girl named Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo. Chryses offered Agamemnon a fine ransom for her release but Agamemnon refused to give her up. So Chryses prayed to Apollo, who sent plague upon the Greek camp, and the prophet Calchas revealed that it would be lifted
66 Menelaus. The Greek heroes came from all over the mainland and the islands to the port of Aulis, the assembly point from which they planned to sail across the Aegean to Troy. Some of the heroes came to Aulis more unwillingly than others. Odysseus, king of Ithaca, knew it had been prophesied that if he went to Troy he would not return for twenty years, and so he feigned11 madness when the herald Palamedes came to summon him, yoking12 two mules to a plough and driving them up and down the beach; but his ploy13 was revealed when Palamedes put Odysseus’s infant son Telemachus in the way of the mules, and Odysseus immediately reined14 in his team. Achilles’s parents, Peleus and Thetis, were reluctant to let their young son join in the expedition, since they knew it was fated that if he went he would die at Troy. In an attempt to evade15 his destiny they sent him to Skyros, where, disguised as a girl, he mingled with the daughters of the king, Lykomedes. During his stay he married one of the daughters, Deidameia, who bore him a son, Neoptolemus. Odysseus, however, discovered that the Greeks would never capture Troy without the assistance of Achilles, and so he went to Skyros to fetch him. According to one version of the story, Odysseus disguised himself as a peddler, gained entrance to the court and spread out his wares before the women; among the jewels and textiles were weapon in which the young Achilles displayed a revealing16 interest. Another source describes how Odysseus arranged for the sound of a trumpet to be heard in the women’s quarters: while the genuine daughters scattered in confusion, Achilles stood his ground and called for arms. His disguise dropped, Achilles was easily persuaded to accompany Odysseus back to Aulis, where the fleet was preparing to sail. The huge Greek force, whose greatest heroes were Agamemnon, Menelaus, Odysseus, Aias, Diomedes and Achilles, was ready to sail, but the wind held stubbornly against them. Eventually the prophet Calchas17 revealed that the goddess Artemis demanded the sacrifice of Agamemnon’s daughter, Iphigeneia, before the wind could turn. Agamemnon was horrified by this, but public opinion forced him to comply: Iphigeneia, summoned on the pretext that she was to marry Achilles, was instead slain upon the altar. Some sources say that Artemis took pity on her and substituted a deer at the last moment; at all events the wind veered round, and the ships set sail. The Wrath of Achilles The story of the Iliad is, in fact, the story of Achilles, and of his quarrel with Agamemnon. At the opening of the Iliad the Greeks had already been at Troy for nine years. They had sacked much of the surrounding countryside and skirmished18 sporadically19 with any Trojans who had emerged from behind their massive fortifications. The Greeks were wearying of the campaign and irritated by their inability to score a decisive victory over Troy itself, when Achilles fell out with20 Agamemnon over a matter of honor. Agamemnon, as his share of the booty from a raid21 in which Achilles had played the leading part, had been allotted22 a girl named Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo. Chryses offered Agamemnon a fine ransom for her release but Agamemnon refused to give her up. So Chryses prayed to Apollo, who sent a plague upon the Greek camp, and the prophet Calchas revealed that it would be lifted
only if Agamemnon gave Chryseis back. Achilles was all in favor of him doing this but Agamemnon was reluctant. They quarreled, and Nestor, the master of the courteous word, the clear-voiced orator", tried to reconcile them. Agamemnon eventually agreed to do as he was told but in order to reassert his authority over Achilles in the most insulting way he could, and simultaneously compensate himself for the loss of Chryseis(whom he claimed to prefer to his own wife Clytemnestra), he took away from Achilles his slave-girl, Briseis. Achilles was justifiably enraged Not only was it an insult to his honor, but it was grossly unfair, as he, Achilles, had done most of the fighting necessary to procure all the treasure and booty that Agamemnon felt he had a right to enjoy. Accordingly, Achilles withdrew to his tent, and took no more part in the fighting or the council meetings. The fighting grew fiercer, with more direct attacks made on Troy and the Trojans. But the greeks were hard pressed without their greatest fighter, and even Agamemnon was eventually forced to make overtures" to Achilles, offering him riches of all description, along with the return of Briseis. Achilles, however, rejected all appeals, declaring that even if Agamemnon's gifts were" as many as the grains of sand or the particles of dust he would never be won over A Surprise Attack upon the Trojans at night At this point, Odysseus and Diomedes went out on a night expedition to see what the Trojans were up to". Unknown to them, a Trojan named Dolon was setting out on a similar errand: the Greeks surprised him, and forced him to tell them the dispositions" of the Trojan camp. On his recommendation they ended their night excursion with an attack on the encampment of rhesus, king of Thrace, with whose beautiful horses they escaped back to the greek camp The Death of Patroclus and Achilles' revenge Despite the success of this daring raid, in the overall fighting the Greeks were being driven back to their ships by the Trojans and were in desperate straits", when Achilles's friend Patroclus came to him and begged to be allowed to lead Achilless troops, the Myrmidons, into battle. He also asked if he could borrow Achilless armor in order to strike terror into the ranks of the Trojans, who would mistake him for Achilles. Achilles agreed, and Patroclus went out and fought long and gloriously efore, predictably, he was slain by hector, son of Priam and the best fighter on the Trojan side Achilles was overcome by grief. His mother, the sea-nymph Thetis, came to him and promised him new armor to replace that which had been lost with Patroclus. The new armor, made by the smith-god Hephaestus, included a beautiful shield covered with figured scenes, cities at peace and war, scenes of rural life with flocks, herds and rustic dances and round the rim of the shield ran the river of ocean. achilles and Agamemnon were reconciled, and Achilles returned to the field of battle, where he slaughtered Trojan after Trojan with his spear, like a driving wind that whirls the flames this way and that when a conflagration rages"in the gullies on a sun-baked mountainside and the high forest is consumed". After killing many Trojans and surviving even the attack of the River Scamander, which tried to drown him in its mountainous waves, achilles was at last able to meet his chief adversary Hector
67 only if Agamemnon gave Chryseis back. Achilles was all in favor of him doing this, but Agamemnon was reluctant. They quarreled, and Nestor, “the master of the courteous word, the clear-voiced orator”, tried to reconcile them. Agamemnon eventually agreed to do as he was told, but in order to reassert his authority over Achilles in the most insulting way he could, and simultaneously compensate himself for the loss of Chryseis (whom he claimed to prefer to his own wife Clytemnestra), he took away from Achilles his slave-girl, Briseis. Achilles was justifiably23 enraged. Not only was it an insult to his honor, but it was grossly unfair, as he, Achilles, had done most of the fighting necessary to procure all the treasure and booty that Agamemnon felt he had a right to enjoy. Accordingly, Achilles withdrew to his tent, and took no more part in the fighting or the council meetings. The fighting grew fiercer, with more direct attacks made on Troy and the Trojans. But the Greeks were hard pressed without their greatest fighter, and even Agamemnon was eventually forced to make overtures24 to Achilles, offering him riches of all description, along with the return of Briseis. Achilles, however, rejected all appeals, declaring that even if Agamemnon’s gifts were “as many as the grains of sand or the particles of dust” he would never be won over. A Surprise Attack upon the Trojans at Night At this point, Odysseus and Diomedes went out on a night expedition to see what the Trojans were up to25. Unknown to them, a Trojan named Dolon was setting out on a similar errand: the Greeks surprised him, and forced him to tell them the dispositions26 of the Trojan camp. On his recommendation they ended their night excursion with an attack on the encampment of Rhesus, king of Thrace, with whose beautiful horses they escaped back to the Greek camp. The Death of Patroclus and Achilles’ Revenge Despite the success of this daring raid, in the overall fighting the Greeks were being driven back to their ships by the Trojans and were in desperate straits27, when Achilles’s friend Patroclus came to him and begged to be allowed to lead Achilles’s troops, the Myrmidons, into battle. He also asked if he could borrow Achilles’s armor in order to strike terror into the ranks of the Trojans, who would mistake him for Achilles. Achilles agreed, and Patroclus went out and fought long and gloriously, before, predictably, he was slain by hector, son of Priam and the best fighter on the Trojan side. Achilles was overcome by grief. His mother, the sea-nymph Thetis, came to him, and promised him new armor to replace that which had been lost with Patroclus. The new armor, made by the smith-god Hephaestus, included a beautiful shield covered with figured scenes, cities at peace and war, scenes of rural life with flocks, herds and rustic dances, and round the rim of the shield ran the River of Ocean. Achilles and Agamemnon were reconciled, and Achilles returned to the field of battle, where he slaughtered Trojan after Trojan with his spear, “like a driving wind that whirls28 the flames this way and that when a conflagration29 rages30 in the gullies on a sun-baked mountainside and the high forest is consumed”. After killing many Trojans and surviving even the attack of the River Scamander, which tried to drown him in its mountainous waves, Achilles was at last able to meet his chief adversary, Hector
The rest of Trojan had fled from the onslaught of Achilles and taken refuge within their wall, but Hector remained outside the gates, deliberatelyawaiting the duel which he knew he must fight. Yet when Achilles finally appeared, Hector was overcome by understandable terror and turned to flee. Three times they ran the circuit of the walls of Troy before Hector stopped and bravely faced his great opponent Achilles's spear lodged in Hector's throat and he fell to the ground Barely able to speak, hector begged that Achilles should allow his body to be ransomed after his death, but Achilles, furious with the man who had killed Patroclus, spurnedhis appeal and proceeded to subject the body togreat indignities. First he dragged it by the heels behind his chariot round the walls of the city, for all of Troy to see. Then he took the body back to the greek camp, where it lay untended in his huts The return of Hectors Body Achilles then arranged an elaborate funeral for Patroclus. a huge pyre was built over it many sheep and cattle were slaughtered and their carcasses" piled around the body of the dead hero. Jars of honey and oil were added to the pyre, and then four horses and two of Patroclus's dogs. Twelve Trojan prisoners were slaughtered over the pyre, which was then set alight. It burned all night, and all night Achilles poured libations of wine and mourned aloud for Patroclus. The next day the bones of Patroclus were collected and laid in a golden urn, and a great mound was raised where the pyre had been. Funeral games with magnificent prizes were held, with competitions for chariot racing. Boxing, wrestling, running, armed fighting, throwing the discus and archery. And every day at dawn, for twelve days, Achilles dragged the body of Hector three times round the mound, until even the gods, who had foreseen and arranged all this, were shocked, and Zeus sent Iris, messenger of the gods, into Troy to visit Priam and instruct him to go secretly to the Greek camp with a fine ransom, which Achilles would accept in return for relinquishing the body of Priams son So Priam, escorted by a single herald, set out for the Greek camp, and was met in the dusk as he drew near to the greek ships by Herms, disguised as a follower of Achilles. Hermes guided Priam through the greek camp, so that he arrived unseen at the hut of Achilles. Priam went straight in and threw himself at Achilles's feet: he asked the hero to think of his own father Peleus, and to show mercy on the father who had lost so many of his own sons at the hands of the greek he asked to be allowed to take the body of his greatest son back to Troy with him in order that he should be properly mourned and buried by his kinsmen. Achilles was moved by his appeal; they wept together, and Priams request was granted. So Hectors body was returned to Troy, where he was mourned and buried with appropriate rites Here the iliad ends but it is by no means the end of the story of Troy. The rest of the story is recounted partly in the Odyssey and partly by the tragedians, but also by later Roman authors, principally Virgil in the Aeneid and a miscellany" of later poets such as Quintus of Smyrna. After the death of Hector, a series of allies came to the assistance of the Trojans, including the amazons under their queen, Penthesileia, and the Ethiopians led by Memnon, a son of Eos, goddess of the dawn. Both Penthesileia and Memnon were killed by Achilles. But Achilles had al ways known that he himself 68
68 The rest of Trojan had fled from the onslaught31 of Achilles and taken refuge within their wall, but Hector remained outside the gates, deliberately32 awaiting the duel which he knew he must fight. Yet when Achilles finally appeared, Hector was overcome by understandable terror and turned to flee. Three times they ran the circuit of the walls of Troy before Hector stopped and bravely faced his great opponent. Achilles’s spear lodged33 in Hector’s throat and he fell to the ground. Barely able to speak, hector begged that Achilles should allow his body to be ransomed after his death, but Achilles, furious with the man who had killed Patroclus, spurned34 his appeal and proceeded to subject the body to35 great indignities. First he dragged it by the heels behind his chariot round the walls of the city, for all of Troy to see. Then he took the body back to the Greek camp, where it lay untended36 in his huts. The Return of Hector’s Body Achilles then arranged an elaborate funeral for Patroclus. A huge pyre was built; over it many sheep and cattle were slaughtered and their carcasses37 piled around the body of the dead hero. Jars of honey and oil were added to the pyre, and then four horses and two of Patroclus’s dogs. Twelve Trojan prisoners were slaughtered over the pyre, which was then set alight. It burned all night, and all night Achilles poured libations38 of wine and mourned aloud for Patroclus. The next day the bones of Patroclus were collected and laid in a golden urn, and a great mound was raised where the pyre had been. Funeral games with magnificent prizes were held, with competitions for chariot racing. Boxing, wrestling, running, armed fighting, throwing the discus and archery. And every day at dawn, for twelve days, Achilles dragged the body of Hector three times round the mound, until even the gods, who had foreseen and arranged all this, were shocked, and Zeus sent Iris, messenger of the gods, into Troy to visit Priam and instruct him to go secretly to the Greek camp with a fine ransom, which Achilles would accept in return for relinquishing39 the body of Priam’s son. So Priam, escorted by a single herald, set out for the Greek camp, and was met in the dusk as he drew near to the Greek ships by Herms, disguised as a follower of Achilles. Hermes guided Priam through the Greek camp, so that he arrived unseen at the hut of Achilles. Priam went straight in and threw himself at Achilles’s feet: he asked the hero to think of his own father Peleus, and to show mercy on the father who had lost so many of his own sons at the hands of the Greek; he asked to be allowed to take the body of his greatest son back to Troy with him in order that he should be properly mourned and buried by his kinsmen. Achilles was moved by his appeal; they wept together, and Priam’s request was granted. So Hector’s body was returned to Troy, where he was mourned and buried with appropriate rites. Here the Iliad ends, but it is by no means the end of the story of Troy. The rest of the story is recounted partly in the Odyssey and partly by the tragedians, but also by later Roman authors, principally Virgil in the Aeneid and a miscellany40 of later poets such as Quintus of Smyrna. After the death of Hector, a series of allies came to the assistance of the Trojans, including the Amazons under their queen, Penthesileia, and the Ethiopians led by Memnon, a son of Eos, goddess of the dawn. Both Penthesileia and Memnon were killed by Achilles. But Achilles had always known that he himself