124PILOTINGThe radar plotter, for example, must know if radarvessel's SOA.The thicker the weather,the more slowlythe vessel must proceed.Therefore,ifheavyfog orrainwill betheprimaryor secondary source offix infor-mation.Thebearing recorder must know what fixisintheforecast.thenavigatormustadvancethetimeinterval thenavigator is planning to use.Eachpersonhewasplanningto leavefortheharborentrance.must be thoroughly briefed on his job; there is littleMooring Procedures: The navigator must take moretime for questions once the vessel enters the channel.than distance intoaccount when calculating howlong805.VoyagePlanningToTheHarbor Entranceit will take him to pilot to his mooring.If the vessel(Inbound Vessel Only)needsatug,thatwillsignificantlyincreasethetimeallottedtopiloting.Similarly,pickingup (inbound)orThe vessel's planned estimated time of arrival (ETA) atdroppingoff(outbound)apilotaddstimetothetransitits moorings determines the vessel's course and speed to theIt is betterto allowamarginforerrorwhentrying toharborentrance.Arrivingatthemooringsiteontimemaybeadd up all thetime delays caused by theseprocedures.important inabusyportwhichoperates itsportservices onaIt is always easierto avoid arriving early by slowingtight schedule.Therefore, it is important to conduct harbor ap-down than it is to make up lost time by speeding up.proach voyage planning accurately. Take the ETA at theTime to Find the Harbor Entrance: Depending on themooring and subtractfrom that the time it will taketonavigatethe harbor to the pier.The resulting time is when you must ar-sophisticationof his vessel'snavigation suite,anavigatorrive at the harbor entrance.Next, measure the distancemayrequiresometimetofind theharborentrance.This isbetweenthevessel'spresentlocationandtheharborentranceseldom a problem with warships and largemerchant ves-Determine the speed of advance (SOA)the vessel will usetosels, both of which carry sophisticated electronicmakethetransittotheharbor.Usethedistancetotheharbornavigation suites.However, it may be a consideration forand the SOAto calculatewhattimeto leavethepresentposi-theyachtsman relying solelyon dead reckoning and cetiontomakethemooringETAlestialnavigation.Considerthesefactors which mightaffect this decision:Shipping Density: Generally,the higher the shipping den-Weather:This is the single most important factor insity entering and exiting the harbor, the longer it will take toharbor approachplanningbecause it directlyaffectstheproceed intotheharborentrance safelyTRANSITIONTOPILOTING806. Stationing The Piloting Teamderstand the relationship between the pilot and thecaptain.The pilot is perhaps the captain's most impor-Approximatelyonehourpriortoleavingportorenteringtantnavigationadvisor:often,thecaptainwilldefertorestricted waters,station thepilotingteam.The number andhis recommendations when navigating an unfamiliartypeof personnel availableforthepiloting team depend onharbor.The pilot, too, bears some responsibility for thethevessel.ANavywarship,forexample,hasmorepeoplesafepassage ofthevessel:he can be censured for errorsavailableforpilotingthandoesamerchantman.Thereforeof judgment which causeaccidents.However,the pres-more thanoneofthe jobs listed belowmayhavetobefilledenceof apilotinno wayrelievesthecaptain of hisby a singleperson.Thepilotingteam should consist ofultimate responsibilityfor safenavigation.The pilotingteam works to support and advise the vessel's captain.The Captain: The captain is ultimately responsible forthe safe navigation ofhis vessel.His judgment regardingThe Officer of theDeck (Conning Officer):In Navynavigation isfinal.The piloting team acts to support thepiloting teams, neither the pilot or the captain usuallyhas the conn.The officer having the conn directs thecaptain, advising him so he can make informed deci-sions on handling his vessel.ship's movements by rudder and engine orders. Anoth-er officer of the ship's company usually fulfills thisThe Pilot:The pilot is usually the only member of thefunction The captain can take the conn immediatelypilotingteam notnormallya memberoftheship'scom-simply by issuing an order to the helm should an emer-pany.Many ports require a pilot, a federal or stategency arise.The conning officer of a merchant vessellicensed navigator who possesses extensive localcan be either the pilot, the captain, or another watch of-knowledgeoftheharbor.tobeonboardasthevesselficer.In any event, the officerhaving the conn must beclearly indicated in the ship's deck log at all times.Of-makes its harbor passage.The piloting team must un-
124 PILOTING The radar plotter, for example, must know if radar will be the primary or secondary source of fix information. The bearing recorder must know what fix interval the navigator is planning to use. Each person must be thoroughly briefed on his job; there is little time for questions once the vessel enters the channel. 805. Voyage Planning To The Harbor Entrance (Inbound Vessel Only) The vessel’s planned estimated time of arrival (ETA) at its moorings determines the vessel’s course and speed to the harbor entrance. Arriving at the mooring site on time may be important in a busy port which operates its port services on a tight schedule. Therefore, it is important to conduct harbor approach voyage planning accurately. Take the ETA at the mooring and subtract from that the time it will take to navigate the harbor to the pier. The resulting time is when you must arrive at the harbor entrance. Next, measure the distance between the vessel’s present location and the harbor entrance. Determine the speed of advance (SOA) the vessel will use to make the transit to the harbor. Use the distance to the harbor and the SOA to calculate what time to leave the present position to make the mooring ETA. Consider these factors which might affect this decision: • Weather: This is the single most important factor in harbor approach planning because it directly affects the vessel’s SOA. The thicker the weather, the more slowly the vessel must proceed. Therefore, if heavy fog or rain is in the forecast, the navigator must advance the time he was planning to leave for the harbor entrance. • Mooring Procedures: The navigator must take more than distance into account when calculating how long it will take him to pilot to his mooring. If the vessel needs a tug, that will significantly increase the time allotted to piloting. Similarly, picking up (inbound) or dropping off (outbound) a pilot adds time to the transit. It is better to allow a margin for error when trying to add up all the time delays caused by these procedures. It is always easier to avoid arriving early by slowing down than it is to make up lost time by speeding up. • Time to Find the Harbor Entrance: Depending on the sophistication of his vessel’s navigation suite, a navigator may require some time to find the harbor entrance. This is seldom a problem with warships and large merchant vessels, both of which carry sophisticated electronic navigation suites. However, it may be a consideration for the yachtsman relying solely on dead reckoning and celestial navigation. • Shipping Density: Generally, the higher the shipping density entering and exiting the harbor, the longer it will take to proceed into the harbor entrance safely. TRANSITION TO PILOTING 806. Stationing The Piloting Team Approximately one hour prior to leaving port or entering restricted waters, station the piloting team. The number and type of personnel available for the piloting team depend on the vessel. A Navy warship, for example, has more people available for piloting than does a merchantman. Therefore, more than one of the jobs listed below may have to be filled by a single person. The piloting team should consist of: • The Captain: The captain is ultimately responsible for the safe navigation of his vessel. His judgment regarding navigation is final. The piloting team acts to support the captain, advising him so he can make informed decisions on handling his vessel. • The Pilot: The pilot is usually the only member of the piloting team not normally a member of the ship’s company. Many ports require a pilot, a federal or state licensed navigator who possesses extensive local knowledge of the harbor, to be on board as the vessel makes its harbor passage. The piloting team must understand the relationship between the pilot and the captain. The pilot is perhaps the captain’s most important navigation advisor; often, the captain will defer to his recommendations when navigating an unfamiliar harbor. The pilot, too, bears some responsibility for the safe passage of the vessel; he can be censured for errors of judgment which cause accidents. However, the presence of a pilot in no way relieves the captain of his ultimate responsibility for safe navigation. The piloting team works to support and advise the vessel’s captain. • The Officer of the Deck (Conning Officer): In Navy piloting teams, neither the pilot or the captain usually has the conn. The officer having the conn directs the ship’s movements by rudder and engine orders. Another officer of the ship’s company usually fulfills this function. The captain can take the conn immediately simply by issuing an order to the helm should an emergency arise. The conning officer of a merchant vessel can be either the pilot, the captain, or another watch officer. In any event, the officer having the conn must be clearly indicated in the ship’s deck log at all times. Of-
125PILOTINGten a single officer will have the deck and the conn.Plot Supervisors: Ideally,the piloting team shouldcon-However,sometimes a juniorofficer will takethe connsist oftwo plots: the primary plot and the secondary plot.fortraining.InthiscasedifferentofficerswillhavetheThenavigator should designate thetypeof navigationdeck and the conn.The officer who retains the deck re-that will be employed on theprimaryplot.All otherfixtains theresponsibilityfor the vessel's safe navigationsources should beplotted on the secondaryplot.Forex-ample,ifthe navigator designates visual piloting as theprimary fix method, lay down only visual bearings onThe Navigator:The vessel's navigator is the officerthe primary plot. Lay down all other fix sources (radar,directlyresponsibletothe ship's captainforthe safeelectronic.orsatellite)onthesecondarvplot.Thenavinavigation of the ship.He is the captain's principalgator can function as the primary plot supervisor.Anavigationadvisor.Thepilotingpartyworksforhimsenior.experiencedindividualshouldbeemplovedasaHechannels therequired informationdevelopedbythesecondary plot supervisor.The navigator should fre-pilotingpartytotheship's conningofficeronrecom-quentlycomparethepositionsplottedonbothplotsasamended courses, speeds, and turns.He also carefullycheck on the primary plot.looksaheadforpotential navigationhazardsandmakesappropriaterecommendations.Heis themost seniorThere are three major reasons for maintaining a prima-officer who devotes his effort exclusively to monitor-ry and secondary plot. First, as mentioned above, theingthenavigation picture.Thecaptain and theconningsecondaryfixsourcesprovideagoodcheckontheaccuraofficer areconcernedwith all aspects ofthepassage,cy of visual piloting. Large discrepancies between visualincluding contact avoidance and other necessary shipand radarpositionsmaypointouta problem withthevisu-evolutions (making up tugs, maneuvering alongside aal fixes that the navigator might not otherwise suspectsmall boat for personnel transfers, engineering evolu-Secondly,the navigator often must change the primarytions.andcoordinatingwithharborcontrolviaradiomeansofnavigationduringthetransit.Hemayinitiallforexample).Thenavigator,on theotherhand,focusesdesignatevisual bearings astheprimaryfix methodonlytosolely on safe navigation.It is his job to anticipate dan-havea sudden stormorfogobscure thevisual NAVAIDSIf he shifts theprimaryfix means to radar, he has a trackger and keep himself appraised of the navigationsituationatall times.history of the correlation between radar and visual fixesFinally,the piloting team oftenmust shift charts severaltimes duringthetransit.Whentheoldchart istaken offtheBearing Plotting Team: This team consists, ideally,plottingtable and before the new chart is secured, there isof three persons.The firstperson measures the bear-aperiodoftimewhennochartisinuse.Maintainingasec-ings.The second person records thebearings in anondary ploteliminatesthis complicationEnsure theofficial record book.Thethird person plots the bear-secondaryplot isnotshiftedpriortogettingthenewprima-ings.The more quickly and accurately this process isryplotchartdownonthecharttableInthiscasetherewillcompleted,thesoonerthenavigatorhasanaccuratealways be a chart availableon whichtopilot.Do not con-picture of the ship's position.The bearing taker shouldsider the primary chart shifed until the new chart isbe an experienced individual who has traversed theproperly secured and the plotter has transferred the last fixport beforeand who is familiar with the NAVAIDSfromthe original chartontothenewchart.He should take his round of bearings as quickly as pos-sible,minimizing any timedelayerrors in the resultingSatellite Navigation Operator: This operator normal-fix.The plotter should also be an experienced individ-ly works for the secondary plot supervisor.GPSual who can quickly and accurately lay down therequired bearings.The bearing recorder canbe one ofabsolute accuracywith SA operational is notsufficientthe junior members of the piloting team.formostpilotingapplications.However,thesecondaryplotshouldkeeptrackofGPSfixes.Iftheteamsloosesvisual bearings in the channel and no radar NAVAIDSTheRadar Operator:The radar operator has one ofare available, GPS maybe the most accuratefix sourcethemore difficult jobs of the team.The radar is as im-available.Thenavigatormusthavesomedataontheportant for collision avoidance as it is for navigation.comparisonbetween satellite positions andvisual posiTherefore,this operator musttime share"the radar betions over the history of the passage to use satellitetweenthesetwofunctions.Determiningtheamountofpositions effectively.The only way to obtain this datatime spent on thesefunctions falls withinthe judgmentis toplot satellite positions and compare theseposi-of the captain and the navigator.Iftheday is clear andtions to visual positions throughout the harbor passage.thetraffic heavy,the captain maywant to use theradarmostly for collision avoidance.As the weather wors-Fathometer Operator:Run the fathometer continu-ens,obscuringvisualNAVAIDS,the importanceofradar for safe navigation increases.The radar operatorously and station an operator tomonitor it.Do not relymust be given clear guidance on how the captain andonaudiblealarmstokeyvourattentiontothiscriticallynavigator want the radar to beoperated.importantpilotingtool.Thefathometeroperatormust
PILOTING 125 ten a single officer will have the deck and the conn. However, sometimes a junior officer will take the conn for training. In this case, different officers will have the deck and the conn. The officer who retains the deck retains the responsibility for the vessel’s safe navigation. • The Navigator: The vessel’s navigator is the officer directly responsible to the ship’s captain for the safe navigation of the ship. He is the captain’s principal navigation advisor. The piloting party works for him. He channels the required information developed by the piloting party to the ship’s conning officer on recommended courses, speeds, and turns. He also carefully looks ahead for potential navigation hazards and makes appropriate recommendations. He is the most senior officer who devotes his effort exclusively to monitoring the navigation picture. The captain and the conning officer are concerned with all aspects of the passage, including contact avoidance and other necessary ship evolutions (making up tugs, maneuvering alongside a small boat for personnel transfers, engineering evolutions, and coordinating with harbor control via radio, for example). The navigator, on the other hand, focuses solely on safe navigation. It is his job to anticipate danger and keep himself appraised of the navigation situation at all times. • Bearing Plotting Team: This team consists, ideally, of three persons. The first person measures the bearings. The second person records the bearings in an official record book. The third person plots the bearings. The more quickly and accurately this process is completed, the sooner the navigator has an accurate picture of the ship’s position. The bearing taker should be an experienced individual who has traversed the port before and who is familiar with the NAVAIDS. He should take his round of bearings as quickly as possible, minimizing any time delay errors in the resulting fix. The plotter should also be an experienced individual who can quickly and accurately lay down the required bearings. The bearing recorder can be one of the junior members of the piloting team. • The Radar Operator: The radar operator has one of the more difficult jobs of the team. The radar is as important for collision avoidance as it is for navigation. Therefore, this operator must “time share” the radar between these two functions. Determining the amount of time spent on these functions falls within the judgment of the captain and the navigator. If the day is clear and the traffic heavy, the captain may want to use the radar mostly for collision avoidance. As the weather worsens, obscuring visual NAVAIDS, the importance of radar for safe navigation increases. The radar operator must be given clear guidance on how the captain and navigator want the radar to be operated. • Plot Supervisors: Ideally, the piloting team should consist of two plots: the primary plot and the secondary plot. The navigator should designate the type of navigation that will be employed on the primary plot. All other fix sources should be plotted on the secondary plot. For example, if the navigator designates visual piloting as the primary fix method, lay down only visual bearings on the primary plot. Lay down all other fix sources (radar, electronic, or satellite) on the secondary plot. The navigator can function as the primary plot supervisor. A senior, experienced individual should be employed as a secondary plot supervisor. The navigator should frequently compare the positions plotted on both plots as a check on the primary plot. There are three major reasons for maintaining a primary and secondary plot. First, as mentioned above, the secondary fix sources provide a good check on the accuracy of visual piloting. Large discrepancies between visual and radar positions may point out a problem with the visual fixes that the navigator might not otherwise suspect. Secondly, the navigator often must change the primary means of navigation during the transit. He may initially designate visual bearings as the primary fix method only to have a sudden storm or fog obscure the visual NAVAIDS. If he shifts the primary fix means to radar, he has a track history of the correlation between radar and visual fixes. Finally, the piloting team often must shift charts several times during the transit. When the old chart is taken off the plotting table and before the new chart is secured, there is a period of time when no chart is in use. Maintaining a secondary plot eliminates this complication. Ensure the secondary plot is not shifted prior to getting the new primary plot chart down on the chart table. In this case, there will always be a chart available on which to pilot. Do not consider the primary chart shifted until the new chart is properly secured and the plotter has transferred the last fix from the original chart onto the new chart. • Satellite Navigation Operator: This operator normally works for the secondary plot supervisor. GPS absolute accuracy with SA operational is not sufficient for most piloting applications. However, the secondary plot should keep track of GPS fixes. If the teams looses visual bearings in the channel and no radar NAVAIDS are available, GPS may be the most accurate fix source available. The navigator must have some data on the comparison between satellite positions and visual positions over the history of the passage to use satellite positions effectively. The only way to obtain this data is to plot satellite positions and compare these positions to visual positions throughout the harbor passage. • Fathometer Operator: Run the fathometer continuously and station an operator to monitor it. Do not rely on audible alarms to key your attention to this critically important piloting tool. The fathometer operator must
126PILOTINGknow the warning and danger soundings for the areaOncethenavigatorverifiestheaboveequipmentis inplacethe vessel is transiting. Most fathometers can displayhetapes downthecharts on thechart table.ifmore than oneeither total depth of water or depth under thekeel.Setchart isrequired for the transit, tape the charts ina stack such thatthe fathometer to display depth underthekeel.ThetheplotterworksfromthetoptothebottomofthestackThisnavigator must check the sounding at each fix andminimizes the time required to shift the chart during the transitIf the plotter is using a PMP,align the arm ofthePMP with anycomparethatvaluetothechartedsounding.Adiscrep-ancy between these values is cause for immediatemeridian of longitude on the chart. While holding the PMP armaction to take another fix and check the ship's position.stationary, adjust the PMP to read 000.0°T.This procedure cal-ibrates the PMPto thechart in use.Perform this alignment every807.PlotSetuptime the piloting team shifts charts.Be careful nottofoldunderany important informationwhen folding the chart on the chart table.Ensure the chart'sOncethepilotingteam is onstation,ensuretheprimarydistance scale,theentiretrack,and all important warningandsecondaryplothavethefollowinginstrumentsinformation arevisible.:Dividers: Dividers are used to measure distances be-Energize andtestall electronic navigationequipmentifnot already in operation.This includes theradarand thetween points on the chart.GPS receiver.Energize and test the fathometer.Ensuretheentire electronic navigation suite isoperatingproperlyprior:Compasses: Compasses are used to plot range arcsto entering restricted watersfor radar LOP's.Beam compasses are used when therangearc exceedsthespread of a conventional com-808. Evolutions Prior To Pilotingpass.Both should be available at both plots.The navigator should always accomplish thefollowing:Bearing Measuring Devices:Several types ofevolutions priortopiloting:bearing measuring devices are available.The pre-ferreddevice istheparallel motionplotter(PMP).Testing the Shaft on the Main Engines in theused in conjunction with a drafting table.Other-wise, use parallel rulers or rolling rulers with theAstern Direction: This ensures that the ship can an-chart's compass rose.Finally,the plotter can use aswer a backing bell. If the ship is entering port, noone arm protractor.Theplotter should use the de-special precautions are required prior to this test.Ifthevice with which hecan work the most quickly andship is tied up at the pier preparing to get underwayaccurately.exerciseextremecautiontoensurenowayisplacedon the ship whiletestingthemain engines..Sharpened Pencils and Erasers: Ensure an ade-·Making the Anchor Ready for Letting Go: Makequate supply of pencils is available. There isgenerally not time to sharpen one if it breaks in thetheanchor ready for letting go and station a watch-middle of the transit, so have several sharpened pen-standerin direct communications withthebridge atcils available at the plot.the anchor windlass.Be prepared to dropanchor im-mediately when piloting if required to keep from:Three Arm Protractor:This protractor is used todrifting too closeto a navigation hazard.plot relative bearings and sextant horizontal anglesshould the true bearing source fail during the transit..Calculate GyroError:An errorofgreater than 1.0oT indicates a gyro problem which should be investi-: Fischer Radar Plotting Templates: Fischer plot-gated priorto piloting.There are several waystodetermine gyro error:tingiscoveredinChapter13.Theplottingtemplatesfor this technique should be stacked near the radar1.Compare the gyro reading with a known accu-repeater.rate headingreferencesuchasaninertialnavigator. The difference in the readings is the:Time-Speed-Distance Calculator: Given two ofgyro error.the three unknowns (between time, speed, and dis-tance),this calculator allowsforrapid computationof the third.2.Mark the bearing ofa charted range as the rangeNAVAID's come into lineand comparethegyro:Tide and Current Graphs: Post thetide and currentbearing with thechartedbearing.Thedifferenceis thegyro error.graphs near the primary plot for easy reference dur-ing the transit. Give a copy of the graphs to the3.Prior to getting underway,plot a dockside fix usingconning officer and thecaptain
126 PILOTING know the warning and danger soundings for the area the vessel is transiting. Most fathometers can display either total depth of water or depth under the keel. Set the fathometer to display depth under the keel. The navigator must check the sounding at each fix and compare that value to the charted sounding. A discrepancy between these values is cause for immediate action to take another fix and check the ship’s position. 807. Plot Setup Once the piloting team is on station, ensure the primary and secondary plot have the following instruments: • Dividers: Dividers are used to measure distances between points on the chart. • Compasses: Compasses are used to plot range arcs for radar LOP’s. Beam compasses are used when the range arc exceeds the spread of a conventional compass. Both should be available at both plots. • Bearing Measuring Devices: Several types of bearing measuring devices are available. The preferred device is the parallel motion plotter (PMP) used in conjunction with a drafting table. Otherwise, use parallel rulers or rolling rulers with the chart’s compass rose. Finally, the plotter can use a one arm protractor. The plotter should use the device with which he can work the most quickly and accurately. • Sharpened Pencils and Erasers: Ensure an adequate supply of pencils is available. There is generally not time to sharpen one if it breaks in the middle of the transit, so have several sharpened pencils available at the plot. • Three Arm Protractor: This protractor is used to plot relative bearings and sextant horizontal angles should the true bearing source fail during the transit. • Fischer Radar Plotting Templates: Fischer plotting is covered in Chapter 13. The plotting templates for this technique should be stacked near the radar repeater. • Time-Speed-Distance Calculator: Given two of the three unknowns (between time, speed, and distance), this calculator allows for rapid computation of the third. • Tide and Current Graphs: Post the tide and current graphs near the primary plot for easy reference during the transit. Give a copy of the graphs to the conning officer and the captain. Once the navigator verifies the above equipment is in place, he tapes down the charts on the chart table. If more than one chart is required for the transit, tape the charts in a stack such that the plotter works from the top to the bottom of the stack. This minimizes the time required to shift the chart during the transit. If the plotter is using a PMP, align the arm of the PMP with any meridian of longitude on the chart. While holding the PMP arm stationary, adjust the PMP to read 000.0°T. This procedure calibrates the PMP to the chart in use. Perform this alignment every time the piloting team shifts charts. Be careful not to fold under any important information when folding the chart on the chart table. Ensure the chart’s distance scale, the entire track, and all important warning information are visible. Energize and test all electronic navigation equipment, if not already in operation. This includes the radar and the GPS receiver. Energize and test the fathometer. Ensure the entire electronic navigation suite is operating properly prior to entering restricted waters. 808. Evolutions Prior To Piloting The navigator should always accomplish the following evolutions prior to piloting: • Testing the Shaft on the Main Engines in the Astern Direction: This ensures that the ship can answer a backing bell. If the ship is entering port, no special precautions are required prior to this test. If the ship is tied up at the pier preparing to get underway, exercise extreme caution to ensure no way is placed on the ship while testing the main engines. • Making the Anchor Ready for Letting Go: Make the anchor ready for letting go and station a watchstander in direct communications with the bridge at the anchor windlass. Be prepared to drop anchor immediately when piloting if required to keep from drifting too close to a navigation hazard. • Calculate Gyro Error: An error of greater than 1.0° T indicates a gyro problem which should be investigated prior to piloting. There are several ways to determine gyro error: 1. Compare the gyro reading with a known accurate heading reference such as an inertial navigator. The difference in the readings is the gyro error. 2. Mark the bearing of a charted range as the range NAVAID’s come into line and compare the gyro bearing with the charted bearing. The difference is the gyro error. 3. Prior to getting underway, plot a dockside fix using