15 Environmental Concerns Elliott Goldberg and Maung K Min 1.0 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY 1.1 gulatory Concerns Environmental laws and regulations including permits are reviewed in this chapter. Included are the Federal Clean Air Act Amendment(CAAA the Federal Clean Water Act(CWA)regulations, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCra)or, as it is also known, the Solid Waste Disposal Act. Also discussed along with the regulations under osHAre the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health(NIOSH)and the Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response(HAzWOPER The environmental regulations covered here are not intended to be all inclusive but to provide a basic understanding of the important environmental laws and regulations 1. 2 Technology The environmental technology section includes reviews of waste water reatment and air and waste minimization/pollution prevention. Waste water treatment procedures discussed include biological treatment, activated car bon adsorption, air and steam stripping chemical precipitation, ion ex- change, and membrane separation 635
Environmental Concerns Elliott Goldberg and Maung K. Min 1.0 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY 1.1 Regulatory Concerns Environmental laws and regulations including permits are reviewed in this chapter. Included are the Federal Clean Air Act Amendment (CAAA), the Federal Clean Water Act (CWA) regulations, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) or, as it is also known, the Solid Waste Disposal Act. Also discussed along with the regulations under OSHAare the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER). The environmental regulations covered here are not intended to be allinclusive but to provide a basic understanding ofthe important environmental laws and regulations. 1.2 Technology The environmental technology section includes reviews of waste water treatment and air and waste minimization/pollution prevention. Waste water treatment procedures discussed include biological treatment, activated carbon adsorption, air and steam stripping, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and membrane separation. 635
636 Fermentation and Biochemical Engineering Handbook Air pollution control technology includes thermal incineration, cata lytic incineration, carbon adsorption, absorption, condensation, baghouse filtration, wet scrubbing, and electrostatic precipitation The range of technology will provide the engineer with a sufficient ackground to understand the important air control measures 2.0 LAWS REGULATIONS AND PERMITS 2.1 Air The Federal Clean Air Act Amendments( CAa)were initially enacted in 1963 and modified in 1970 and 1977. The Clean air Act Amendments of 1990 involved major changes to environmental regulations. These included a national permitting system to regulate air pollution Its was to protect the public health and environment by indicating how and when the various industries involved must control a list of air toxics. The regulatory authority was given to the states and local governments. Congress, through the CAA, authorized the epa to develop the necessary regulations to carry out the provisions of the act The EPA established the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), which included allowable ceilings for specific pollutants. How- ever, the states have the option to make any or all parts of the Clean Air Act requirements more stringent than the minimums set by EPA. The EPA is required to regularly evaluate the compliance status of all geographic areas with respect to pollutants, that is, whether the NAAQS is being met for each criteria pollutant. An area where NAAQS is not met is designated as a non- attainment area(NA )for that pollutant Areas where the Federal Ambient Air Quality Standards are being met are designated attainment and are subject to Prevention of Significant Deterioration(PSD)requirements and are required to identify those areas that are attaining or not attaining the standards Compliance and noncompliance can be costly. It has been estimated that the installed cost of equipment and systems to control emissions could range from $20 to $50 billion or higher. The technologies expected to be used include wet scrubbing, thermal incineration, catalytic incineration, carbon absorption, and solvent recovery. New sources and modifications of existing sources of air pollution in an attainment area are regulated under the
636 Fermentation and Biochemical Engineering Handbook Air pollution control technology includes thermal incineration, catalytic incineration, carbon adsorption, absorption, condensation, baghouse filtration, wet scrubbing, and electrostatic precipitation. The range of technology will provide the engineer with a sufficient background to understand the important air control measures. 2.0 LAWS, REGULATIONS AND PERMITS 2.1 Air The Federal Clean Air Act Amendments (CAA) were initially enacted in 1963 and modified in 1970 and 1977. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 involved major changes to environmental regulations. These included a national permitting system to regulate air pollution emissions. Its purpose was to protect the public health and environment by indicating how and when the various industries involved must control a list of air toxics. The regulatory authority was given to the states and local governments. Congress, through the CAA, authorized the EPA to develop the necessary regulations to carry out the provisions of the act. The EPA established the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), which included allowable ceilings for specific pollutants. However, the states have the option to make any or all parts of the Clean Air Act requirements more stringent than the minimums set by EPA. The EPA is required to regularly evaluate the compliance status of all geographic areas with respect to pollutants, that is, whether the NAAQS is being met for each criteria pollutant. An area where NAAQS is not met is designated as a nonattainment area (N.A.) for that pollutant. Areas where the Federal Ambient Air Quality Standards are being met are designated attainment and are subject to Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) requirements and are required to identify those areas that are attaining or not attaining the standards. Compliance and noncompliance can be costly. It has been estimated that the installed cost of equipment and systems to control emissions could range from $20 to $50 billion or higher. The technologies expected to be used include wet scrubbing, thermal incineration, catalytic incineration, carbon absorption, and solvent recovery. New sources and modifications ofexisting sources of air pollution in an attainment area are regulated under the
Environmental Concerns 637 Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program(PSD). PSD review is required if the new source or modifications result in a net emission increase above specified levels he specific pollutants referred to include carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, ozone, inhalable particulates, and sulfur dioxide Primary and secondary standards also were set by EPA, with second ary standards reflecting levels necessary to protect welfare in addition to health An area may be in an attainment status for one pollutant and in a non- attainment status for another pollutant. In most areas, PSD authority has been assigned to either the state or local jurisdiction. The use of the best Available Control Technology(BACT) is required for each pollutant and is based on the emission level and capital and operating costs. Regulations in on-attainment areas are required to meet the EPa s New Source review (NSR) regulations The Clean Air Act of 1990 included a list of 189 toxic chemicals to be controlled and such emissions are to be reduced 90% by the year 2000. It also included the phasing out of chlorinated fluorocarbons( CFC's)and carbon tetrachloroflurocarbons(HCFC s)by 2030 All new and modified emission sources must meet the New Source Performance Standards(NSPS). These standards are generally less strin gent than either the Best Available Control Technology(BAct) or the Lowest Available Emission Rate(LaeR) The National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS) specify emission standards for various hazardous air pollut ants and cover asbestos, arsenic, benzene, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chlo- ride. Pvc. etc The CAaa was promulgated to strengthen the federal air protection program and concerns about air toxics by including an expanded National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants(NESHAP) program Concerns over the effects of hazardous air pollutants(HAP)or air toxics resulted in the Title Operating permit program. The relationship ofthe Title V program to other CAa titles is shown in Fig
Environmental Concerns 637 Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program (PSD). PSD review is required if the new source or modifications result in a net emission increase above specified levels. The specific pollutants referred to include carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, ozone, inhalable particulates, and sulfur dioxide. Primary and secondary standards also were set by EPA, with secondary standards reflecting levels necessary to protect welfare in addition to health. An area may be in an attainment status for one pollutant and in a nonattainment status for another pollutant. In most areas, PSD authority has been assigned to either the state or local jurisdiction. The use of the Best Available Control Technology (BACT) is required for each pollutant and is based on the emission level and capital and operating costs. Regulations in non-attainment areas are required to meet the EPA’s New Source Review (NSR) regulations. The Clean Air Act of 1990 included a list of 189 toxic chemicals to be controlled and such emissions are to be reduced 90% by theyear 2000. It also included the phasing out of chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFC’s) and carbon tetrachloroflurocarbons (HCFC’s) by 2030. All new and modified emission sources must meet the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS). These standards are generally less stringent than either the Best Available Control Technology (BACT) or the Lowest Available Emission Rate (LAER). The National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS) specie emission standards for various hazardous air pollutants and cover asbestos, arsenic, benzene, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, PVC, etc. The CAAA was promulgated to strengthen the federal air protection program and concerns about air toxics by including an expanded National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) program. Concerns over the effects of hazardous air pollutants (HAP) or air toxics resulted in the Title Voperating permit program. The relationship ofthe Title V program to other CA4 titles is shown in Fig. 1
638 Fermentation and Biochemical Engineering Handbook Title Il Air Toxics Acid rain Title I Title v Title VII Nonattainment pErmit Program Enforcement Existing SIP Permit Program Program Figure 1. The relationship of the Title V program to other CAA titles 2.2 Water In 1972 Congress enacted the Federal Water Pollution Control Act known as the clean water Act (CWA). In 1977 further amendments were enacted which strengthened the provisions of the Clean Water Act. Further refinements were enacted by Congress with the Water Quality Act Amend ments of 1987. The purpose of the CWa was to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of our countrys waters. It set up specific effluent guidelines for SIC industry categories and BOD and suspended solids continued to serve as the primary parameters. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System(NPDES)was set up and authorized EPa to establish and enforce effluent limitations on waste water discharges Designated priority pollutants were introduced with a permit program and aquatic toxicity also became a permit requirement. Volatile Organic Compounds (voC) emissions from waste water treatment plants were severely restricted and control of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous The Clean water Actestablished standards that area-wide waste water treatment plants be developed and implemented to assume adequate control
638 Fermentation and Biochemical Engineering Handbook Air Toxics Acid Rain i-xq Permit Program - Program I Figure 1. The relationship of the Title V program to other CAA titles. 2.2 Water In 1972 Congress enacted the Federal Water Pollution Control Act known as the Clean Water Act (CWA). In 1977 further amendments were enacted which strengthened the provisions of the Clean Water Act. Further refinements were enacted by Congress with the Water Quality Act Amendments of 1987. The purpose of the CWA was to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity ofour country's waters. It set up specific effluent guidelines for SIC industry categories and BOD and suspended solids continued to serve as the primary parameters. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) was set up and authorized EPA to establish and enforce effluent limitations on waste water discharges. Designated priority pollutants were introduced with a permit program and aquatic toxicity also became a permit requirement. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) emissions from waste water treatment plants were severely restricted and control of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous were required. The Clean Water Act established standards that area-wide waste water treatment plants be developed and implemented to assume adequate control
Environmental Concerns 639 of the quality of the effluent for industrial discharges of toxic pollutants into Publicly Owned Treatment Works(POTw). It also stated that federal financial assistance would be provided to construct publicly owned waste water treatment works It also established that the federal agencies, the state water pollution control agencies, interstate agencies, and the municipalities and industries involved, prepare or develop comprehensive programs for preventing, reduc ing or eliminating the pollution of navigable waters and ground waters and improving the sanitary condition of surface and underground waters. Due regard shall be given improvements which are necessary to conserve such waters for the protection and propagation of fish and aquatic life The Clean Water Act lays the basis for technology based effluent standards of conventional pollutants such as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Suspended Solids (tss), fecal coliform, oil and grease, pH toxic pollutants, and non-conventional pollutants such as active pesticides ingredients used in the pesticide manufacturing industry, etc A complete list of toxic pollutants can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR, Part 401.15 The CWA established requirements for setting standards for dis charges from new sources for specific industries. It also lists requirements for preventing and responding to accidental discharges of oil or hazardous substances into navigable waters with notification requirements for releases removal requirements, liability standards and civil penalties. Furthermore the CWa established permitting programs to control discharges and severe civil and criminal enforcement provisions for failure to comply with the law Compliance with the Cwa must be incorporated into the design and operation of every chemical process plant To summarize, the focus of the Cwa is the control of pollutants in effluent discharged from a facility through any conveyance to virtually any stream or significant body of water. These discharges are primarily controlled through the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) If the discharge is to a Publicly Owned Treatment Works, the plant needs to meet pretreatment standards to limit pollutants that cannot be readily removed by the POTW Discharges from the POTW are required to be in accordance with the ffluent limitations contained in the npdeS permit for the POtw. If the facility discharges directly into receiving waters, the facility must file for and obtain its own NPDES permit
Environmental Concerns 639 of the quality of the effluent for industrial discharges of toxic pollutants into Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW). It also stated that federal financial assistance would be provided to construct publicly owned waste water treatment works. It also established that the federal agencies, the state water pollution control agencies, interstate agencies, and the municipalities and industries involved, prepare or develop comprehensive programs for preventing, reducing or eliminating the pollution of navigable waters and ground waters and improving the sanitary condition of surface and underground waters. Due regard shall be given improvements which are necessary to conserve such waters for the protection and propagation of fish and aquatic life. The Clean Water Act lays the basis for technology based effluent standards of conventional pollutants such as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), fecal coliform, oil and grease, pH, toxic pollutants, and non-conventional pollutants such as active pesticides, ingredients used in the pesticide manufacturing industry, etc. A complete list of toxic pollutants can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR, Part 40 1.15. The CWA established requirements for setting standards for discharges from new sources for specific industries. It also lists requirements for preventing and responding to accidental discharges of oil or hazardous substances into navigable waters with notification requirements for releases, removal requirements, liability standards and civil penalties. Furthermore, the CWA established permitting programs to control discharges and severe civil and criminal enforcement provisions for failure to comply with the law. Compliance with the CWA must be incorporated into the design and operation of every chemical process plant. To summarize, the focus of the CWA is the control of pollutants in effluent discharged from a facility through any conveyance to virtually any stream or significant body of water. These discharges are primarily controlled through the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). If the discharge is to a Publicly Owned Treatment Works, the plant needs to meet pretreatment standards to limit pollutants that cannot be readily removed by the POTW. Discharges from the POTW are required to be in accordance with the effluent limitations contained in the NPDES permit for the POW. If the facility discharges directly into receiving waters, the facility must file for and obtain its own NPDES permit