378 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations Middle East 65.4% 687 FIGURE 18.3.Proved oil reserves at the end of 39 2002 for various geographical regions.The 99 97 77 50 reserves for the individual blocks(rounded) are given in 109 barrels.(They are printed Asia Pacific in white numbers.)The total proved world South and North 3.69% oil reserves at the end of 2002 is estimated Central Europe Africa America to be 1,047.5 x 109 bbl.Source:BP statisti- America Eurasia 7.39% 4.76% cal review of world energy,2003. 9.41% 9.31% this,Table 18.2 also lists the production and consumption data for crude oil and coal.It needs to be emphasized that only 2% of the consumed oil goes into the manufacturing of plastics,and 1%is used for pharmaceutical products.The remainder is burned as fuel.Figure 18.3 displays the known petroleum resources for various geographic regions. Table 18.4 lists the average daily oil production for the year 2002 for major oil-producing countries.It can be inferred from this table that the USA exploits its resources to a much larger de- gree in proportion to her known reserves,compared to most other countries (see Figure 18.3 and Table 18.4).Figure 18.4 depicts the world oil consumption from 1980 to 2002.The prices for plas- tics depend largely on the price of oil which fluctuates consid- erably over the years (mostly for political reasons).Figure 18.5 depicts crude oil prices from 1981 through 2003. To complete the overall picture,Table 18.5 provides the pro- duction figures and reserves for coal. It is alarming to note from Table 18.2 how fast some of our presently known reserves would deplete if the current consump- tion remains at the same level and if no new sources are discov- ered.This may be particularly true for oil,as shown in Figure 18.6. However,exploration efforts for the past 50 years have consistently yielded additional crude oil reserves that even exceed consump- tion at present,as depicted in Figure 18.7.Reserves are defined as deposits that can be profitably exploited using current tech- nologies at current prices.In other words,the reserves are directly affected by the market price.Moreover,deposits that are not ex- ploited within 20 years are considered to have little significant fi-
this, Table 18.2 also lists the production and consumption data for crude oil and coal. It needs to be emphasized that only 2% of the consumed oil goes into the manufacturing of plastics, and 1% is used for pharmaceutical products. The remainder is burned as fuel. Figure 18.3 displays the known petroleum resources for various geographic regions. Table 18.4 lists the average daily oil production for the year 2002 for major oil-producing countries. It can be inferred from this table that the USA exploits its resources to a much larger degree in proportion to her known reserves, compared to most other countries (see Figure 18.3 and Table 18.4). Figure 18.4 depicts the world oil consumption from 1980 to 2002. The prices for plastics depend largely on the price of oil which fluctuates considerably over the years (mostly for political reasons). Figure 18.5 depicts crude oil prices from 1981 through 2003. To complete the overall picture, Table 18.5 provides the production figures and reserves for coal. It is alarming to note from Table 18.2 how fast some of our presently known reserves would deplete if the current consumption remains at the same level and if no new sources are discovered. This may be particularly true for oil, as shown in Figure 18.6. However, exploration efforts for the past 50 years have consistently yielded additional crude oil reserves that even exceed consumption at present, as depicted in Figure 18.7. Reserves are defined as deposits that can be profitably exploited using current technologies at current prices. In other words, the reserves are directly affected by the market price. Moreover, deposits that are not exploited within 20 years are considered to have little significant fi- 378 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations Middle East 65.4% Asia Pacific 3.69% Europe & Eurasia 9.31% South and Central America 9.41% Africa 7.39% North America 4.76% 687 99 97 77 50 39 FIGURE 18.3. Proved oil reserves at the end of 2002 for various geographical regions. The reserves for the individual blocks (rounded) are given in 109 barrels. (They are printed in white numbers.) The total proved world oil reserves at the end of 2002 is estimated to be 1,047.5 109 bbl. Source: BP statistical review of world energy, 2003
18.3·Vorld Reserves 379 TABLE 18.4.Average daily oil production in 2002 for various countries,given in 106 barrels Daily average Country oil production OECD! United States 9.00 Canada 2.93 Mexico 3.61 North Sea2 6.21 Other OECD 1.65 Total OECD 23.40 Non-OECD OPEC3 Crude Algeria 1.31 Indonesia 1.27 Iran 3.44 Iraq 2.02 Kuwait 1.89 Libya 1.32 Nigeria 2.12 Qatar 0.68 Saudi Arabia 7.63 United Arab Emirates 2.08 Venezuela 2.60 Natural Gas Plant Liquids 2.10 Refinery Processing Gain 0.06 Total OPEC 28.71 Former USSR 9.38 China 3.39 Other Non-OECD 11.45 Total Non-OECD 52.93 Total 76.33 1OECD=Organization for Economic Co-Opera- tion and Development. 2North Sea includes the United Kingdom Off- shore,Norway,Denmark,Netherlands Offshore, and Germany Offshore. 3OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Source:International Petroleum Monthly,June, 2003
18.3 • World Reserves 379 TABLE 18.4. Average daily oil production in 2002 for various countries, given in 106 barrels Daily average Country oil production OECD1 United States 9.00 Canada 2.93 Mexico 3.61 North Sea2 6.21 Other OECD 1.65 Total OECD 23.40 Non-OECD OPEC3 Crude Algeria 1.31 Indonesia 1.27 Iran 3.44 Iraq 2.02 Kuwait 1.89 Libya 1.32 Nigeria 2.12 Qatar 0.68 Saudi Arabia 7.63 United Arab Emirates 2.08 Venezuela 2.60 Natural Gas Plant Liquids 2.10 Refinery Processing Gain 0.06 Total OPEC 28.71 Former USSR 9.38 China 3.39 Other Non-OECD 11.45 Total Non-OECD 52.93 Total 76.33 1OECD Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 2North Sea includes the United Kingdom Offshore, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands Offshore, and Germany Offshore. 3OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Source: International Petroleum Monthly, June, 2003
380 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations 70 (sKep/slaueq % World total 50 是 40 30 Western Europe 20 USA 10 Eastern Europe former USSR Japan L1 Canada-P+--F土 80 8284868890929496 9820002002 Year FiGURE 18.4.Daily world petroleum (crude oil)consumption in selected countries during 1980 through 2002.(Source:"International Energy Annual 2003,"U.S.Department of Energy.) nancial value.Thus,any exploration efforts to find reserves beyond 20 years are generally not performed for economic reasons.On the other hand,the present coal deposits seem to last for a much longer time period.However,mining will become increasingly expensive and dangerous once greater depths must be confronted. 35 30- 25 20 15- 10- 5 0 19821984198619881990199219941996199820002002 Year FIGURE 18.5.Crude oil posted prices from 1981-2003.(Kern River oil field, 13 API gravity).Source:Chevron USA Inc.,crude oil price bulletins
nancial value. Thus, any exploration efforts to find reserves beyond 20 years are generally not performed for economic reasons. On the other hand, the present coal deposits seem to last for a much longer time period. However, mining will become increasingly expensive and dangerous once greater depths must be confronted. 380 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 80 82 84 World total Western Europe Eastern Europe & former USSR USA Japan 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 2000 2002 Year Consumption (103 barrels/days) Canada FIGURE 18.4. Daily world petroleum (crude oil) consumption in selected countries during 1980 through 2002. (Source: “International Energy Annual 2003,” U.S. Department of Energy.) FIGURE 18.5. Crude oil posted prices from 1981–2003. (Kern River oil field, 13° API gravity). Source: Chevron USA Inc., crude oil price bulletins. 1982 1984 1988 Dollars Per Barrel 1986 1992 1990 1994 1996 1998 Year 2000 2002 25 20 5 10 15 0 35 30
18.3·World Reserves 381 250 200 ■01 ▣Gas 1 50 0 Africa North South Asia Europe Middle Oceania Total America America East FiGURE 18.6.Schematic representation of the number of years the cur- rently known oil(and gas)reserves will last assuming the present con- sumption rate.Source:World Energy Council,London,2000. Developments to promote the usage of alcohol,rapeseed oil (for diesel motors),and other renewable energy sources are use- ful for environmental and possible long-range economic bene- fits.The seed of the rape plant(brassica napus,also called canola, swede or colza)contains about 40%oil,which is mainly used for cooking,soap production,and technical applications.The rape cake that remains after pressing the seeds is rich in proteins and is used as animal fodder.The rape plant is native to Europe but is also cultivated in China and India.Rapeseed oil has been the top oil produced in the European Union and now accounts for more than one third of the total European vegetable oil pro- duction.It has passed the consumption of soy oil.European leaders contemplate obtaining a certain independence from for- eign mineral oil by utilizing rapeseed oil for energy production and transportation.Since specialized engines need to be devel- oped for burning rapeseed oil,a different avenue has been found, (1qqzOIx)sanlasa I!o PLoM 0.8 FIGURE 18.7.Worldwide crude 0.6 oil reserves from 1955 to Rest of world 1995.(Source:"Oil and Gas 0.4 Journal,"March 1996.)The world oil reserves have re- 0.2 OPEC mained fairly stable since this figure was drawn.These 0 reserves at the end of 2002 1955 1960 1965 19701975 1980 1985 1990 1995 are listed as 1.05 X 1012 bbl; Year see Figure 18.3
Developments to promote the usage of alcohol, rapeseed oil (for diesel motors), and other renewable energy sources are useful for environmental and possible long-range economic benefits. The seed of the rape plant (brassica napus, also called canola, swede or colza) contains about 40% oil, which is mainly used for cooking, soap production, and technical applications. The rape cake that remains after pressing the seeds is rich in proteins and is used as animal fodder. The rape plant is native to Europe but is also cultivated in China and India. Rapeseed oil has been the top oil produced in the European Union and now accounts for more than one third of the total European vegetable oil production. It has passed the consumption of soy oil. European leaders contemplate obtaining a certain independence from foreign mineral oil by utilizing rapeseed oil for energy production and transportation. Since specialized engines need to be developed for burning rapeseed oil, a different avenue has been found, 18.3 • World Reserves 381 FIGURE 18.6. Schematic representation of the number of years the currently known oil (and gas) reserves will last assuming the present consumption rate. Source: World Energy Council, London, 2000. 250 50 100 200 150 0 Years Africa North America South America Asia Europe Middle East Oceania Total Oil Gas 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 World oil reserves ( 1012bbl) 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 OPEC Rest of world FIGURE 18.7. Worldwide crude oil reserves from 1955 to 1995. (Source: “Oil and Gas Journal,” March 1996.) The world oil reserves have remained fairly stable since this figure was drawn. These reserves at the end of 2002 are listed as 1.05 1012 bbl; see Figure 18.3
382 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations TABLE 18.5.Proven recoverable world reserves for coal (bituminous coal including anthracite,subbituminous coal,and lignite;data for peat are omitted).Also listed are world production figures.(The numbers are given in 106 metric tons and are from 1999.) Region Production/Year Reserves Years'supply Asia 1,670 252,308 151 North America 1,080 257,906 239 Europe 1.007 312,686 310 Oceania 307 82,664 269 Africa 231 55,367 240 South America 46 21,752 473 Middle East 1 1,710 1710 Total World 4,343 984,453 227 Selected Countries USA 997 249,994 251 Russian Federation 249 157,010 630 China 1,030 114,500 111 India 314 84,396 269 Australia 304 82.090 270 Germany 202 66,000 327 South Africa 223 49,520 222 Ukraine 82 34,153 416 Poland 171 22,160 129 Canada 72 6,578 91 Mexico 10 1,211 121 Japan 773 193 North Korea 81 600 7 Source:"1999 Survey of Energy Resources,"published by the World En- ergy Council,London. Note:The estimates of coal reserves are rather vague.No standard for determining coal reserves exists. namely,to manufacture rapeseed methyl ester (RME)which can be utilized in regular diesel engines,but requires,on the other hand,an additional production process that consumes some of the contained energy.The CO2 emission of engines driven with RME is 60%less than when using diesel oil.Indeed,during the combustion of "bio-diesel"only as much carbon dioxide is gen- erated as the rape plant has taken up from the atmosphere dur- ing the growth phase.On the other hand,emission of CO2-equiv- alents result from the cultivation and the processing of rapeseed oil to RME and during the production of fertilizers and pesti- cides.(Note that natural gas combustion causes also less CO2 emission compared to diesel,specifically,by 52%.)The main
382 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations TABLE 18.5. Proven recoverable world reserves for coal (bituminous coal including anthracite, subbituminous coal, and lignite; data for peat are omitted). Also listed are world production figures. (The numbers are given in 106 metric tons and are from 1999.) Region Production/Year Reserves Years’ supply Asia 1,670 252,308 151 North America 1,080 257,906 239 Europe 1,007 312,686 310 Oceania 307 82,664 269 Africa 231 55,367 240 South America 46 21,752 473 Middle East 1 1,710 1710 Total World 4,343 984,453 227 Selected Countries USA 997 249,994 251 Russian Federation 249 157,010 630 China 1,030 114,500 111 India 314 84,396 269 Australia 304 82,090 270 Germany 202 66,000 327 South Africa 223 49,520 222 Ukraine 82 34,153 416 Poland 171 22,160 129 Canada 72 6,578 91 Mexico 10 1,211 121 Japan 4 773 193 North Korea 81 600 7 Source: “1999 Survey of Energy Resources,” published by the World Energy Council, London. Note: The estimates of coal reserves are rather vague. No standard for determining coal reserves exists. namely, to manufacture rapeseed methyl ester (RME) which can be utilized in regular diesel engines, but requires, on the other hand, an additional production process that consumes some of the contained energy. The CO2 emission of engines driven with RME is 60% less than when using diesel oil. Indeed, during the combustion of “bio-diesel” only as much carbon dioxide is generated as the rape plant has taken up from the atmosphere during the growth phase. On the other hand, emission of CO2-equivalents result from the cultivation and the processing of rapeseed oil to RME and during the production of fertilizers and pesticides. (Note that natural gas combustion causes also less CO2 emission compared to diesel, specifically, by 52%.) The main