Contents 4 Long Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Styrene Resins for Car Interior Applications 259 6 References Part IV Mechanical Performance of Macrocomposite 263 hapter 15 Deformation Mechanisms in Knitted Fabric Composites 1 Introduction 2 Knitted Fabrics 3 Material Characterization and Deformation Behavior 268 I Raw Materials 3.2 Material Characterization 3.2.1 Tensile Testing 268 3.2.2 V-Bending 268 3.2.3 Dome Forming 269 3. 2. 4 Cup Forming 69 4 Experimental Results and Grid Strain Analysis 4. 1 Tensile Testing 269 4.2 V-bending 270 4.3 Dome Forming 271 4.4 Cup Forming 5 Textile Composite Deformation Mechanisms 274 Prepl 274 5.2 Macro-Level Fabric Deformation modes 274 5.3 Micro-Level Fabric Deformation Modes 275 5.4 Textile Fabric Force-Displacer 5.5 Experimental Force-Displacement Curv 278 6 Modeling the Manufacture of the Reinforcement Architecture 6.1 Model Set-Up 279 6.2 Model Input: Knitting Machine Parameters 280 6.3 Model Input: Material Property Parameters 6.4 Model Input: Non-Physical Parameter .5 Simulating the Mechanics of the Knitting Process 283 7 Concluding Remark 284 8 Acknowled 9 References Chapter 16 Impact Damage in Composite Laminates 289 2 Deformation and Energy Release Rate of Axisymmetric Plates with Multiple Delaminations
xii Contents 4 Long Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Styrene Resins for Car Interior Applications 5 Conclusions 6 References Part IV Mechanical Performance of Macrocomposites Chapter 15 Deformation Mechanisms in Knitted Fabric Composites 1 Introduction 2 Knitted Fabrics 3 Material Characterization and Deformation Behavior 3.1 Raw Materials 3.2 Material Characterization 3.2.1 Tensile Testing 3.2.2 V-Bending 3.2.3 Dome Forming 3.2.4 Cup Forming 4 Experimental Results and Grid Strain Analysis 4.1 Tensile Testing 4.2 V-bending 4.3 Dome Forming 4.4 Cup Forming 5 Textile Composite Deformation Mechanisms 5.1 Prepreg Flow Mechanisms 5.2 Macro-Level Fabric Deformation Modes 5.3 Micro-Level Fabric Deformation Modes 5.4 Textile Fabric Force-Displacement Curve 5.5 Experimental Force-Displacement Curves 6 Modeling the Manufacture of the Reinforcement Architecture 6.1 Model Set-Up 6.2 Model Input: Knitting Machine Parameters 6.3 Model Input: Material Property Parameters 6.4 Model Input: Non-Physical Parameters 6.5 Simulating the Mechanics of the Knitting Process 7 Concluding Remarks 8 Acknowledgements 9 References Chapter 16 Impact Damage in Composite Laminates 1 Introduction 2 Deformation and Energy Release Rate of Axisymmetric Plates with Multiple Delaminations 29 1
2. 1 Axisymmetric Plate with Multiple Delaminations of the same Size 291 2.2 A Delamination is Larger or Smaller than the Rest 293 2.3 Effect of geometrical nonlinearity 2.4 Finite Element Analysi 296 .5 Some Derived Relationships 297 3 Effect of the Stacking Sequence 4 Simulation of Delamination Growth in Composite 30 6 References Chapter 17 Discontinuous Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Composites I Introduction 309 2 Basalt Fiber 2. 1 Characteristics, Applications 310 2.2 Production and Properties of Melt-Blown Basalt Fibers 313 3 Hybrid 314 3. 1 Concept and Realization 314 3. 2 Property Prediction 316 3.3 4 Thermoplastic Hybrid Composites 317 4. 1 Polypropylene with Hybrid Reinforcement Containing Basalt Fibers 317 4.2 Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Blends 5 Thermoset Hybrid Composites 321 5.1 Basalt Fiber Mat-Reinforced Hybrid Thermosets 321 5.2 Hybrid Fiber Mat-Reinforced Hybrid Thermosets 323 6 Conclusions and Outlook 7 Acknowledgement 8 Refere 325 Chapter 18 Accelerated Testing Methodology for Polymer Composite Durability 329 329 2 Prediction Procedure of Fatigue Strength 330 3 Some Experimental Details and Relationships Obtained 330 3. 1 Experimental Procedure 2 Failure mechanism 33l 3.3 Master Curve for the Csr Strength 333 3.4 Master Curve for Creep Strength
Contents xiii 2.1 Axisymmetric Plate with Multiple Delaminations of the Same Size 29 1 2.2 A Delamination is Larger or Smaller than the Rest 293 2.3 Effect of geometrical nonlinearity 2.4 Finite Element Analysis 2.5 Some Derived Relationships Effect of the Stacking Sequence Simulation of Delamination Growth in Composite Laminates Conclusion References Chapter 17 Discontinuous Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Composites 1 Introduction 2 Basalt Fibers 2.1 Characteristics, Applications 2.2 Production and Properties of Melt-Blown Basalt Fibers 3 Hybrid Composites 3.1 Concept and Realization 3.2 Property Prediction 3.3 Applications 4 Thermoplastic Hybrid Composites 4.1 Polypropylene with Hybrid Reinforcement Containing Basalt Fibers 4.2 Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Blends 5 Thermoset Hybrid Composites 5.1 Basalt Fiber Mat-Reinforced Hybrid Thermosets 5.2 Hybrid Fiber Mat-Reinforced Hybrid Thermosets 6 Conclusions and Outlook 7 Acknowledgement 8 References Chapter 18 Accelerated Testing Methodology for Polymer Composite Durability 1 Introduction 2 Prediction Procedure of Fatigue Strength 3 Some Experimental Details and Relationships Obtained 330 3.1 Experimental Procedure 330 3.2 Failure Mechanism 33 1 3.3 Master Curve for the CSR Strength 333 3.4 Master Curve for Creep Strength 334
3.5 Master Curve for the Fatigue Strength at Zero stress Ratio 3.6 Prediction of Fatigue Strength for Arbitrary Stress Ratios 4 Applicability of the Prediction Method 338 6 References Contributing Authors 343 List of Acknowledgements 357 Author Index 361 Subject Index 36 63
xiv Contents 3.5 Master Curve for the Fatigue Strength at Zero Stress Ratio 3.6 Prediction of Fatigue Strength for Arbitrary Stress Ratios 4 Applicability of the Prediction Method 5 Conclusion 6 References Contributing Authors List of Acknowledgements Author Index Subject Index
Preface The use of polymer composites in various engineering applications has become state of the art. This multi-author volume provides a useful summary of updated knowledge on polymer composites in general, practically integrating experimental studies, theoretical analyses and computational modeling at different scales, i.e., from nano-to macroscale. Detailed consideration is given to four major areas: structure and properties of polymer nanocomposites, characterization and modeling, processing and application of macrocomposite, and mechanical performance of macrocomposite The idea to organize this volume arose from a very impressive workshop The First International Workshop on Polymers and Composites at IVw Kaiserslautern: Invited Humboldt-Fellows and Distinguished Scientists, which was held on May 22-24, 2003 at the University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. The contributing authors were invited to incorporate updated knowledge and developments into their individual chapters within a year after the workshop, which finally led to these excellent contributions. The success of this workshop was mainly sponsored by the German Alexander von Humboldt Foundation through a Sofja Kovalevskaja Award Program, financed by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research within the"Investment in the Future Program"of the German Government. In 2001, the Humboldt Foundation launched this new award program in order to offer outstanding young researchers throughout the world an opportunity to establish their own work-groups and to develop innovative research concept virtually in Germany. One of the editors, Z. Zhang, was among the 29 award winners in total, who was supported to establish an independent research team between 2001 and 2005 at the Institute for Composite Materials(TVW), University of Kaiserslautern, hosted by K. friedrich The importance of promoting better knowledge in the field of polymer composites is demonstrated by the contents of this volume, which contains 18 independent chapters. The first part of this volume deals with the topic of structure and properties of polymer nanocomposites. In Chapter 1, Schulte et al. review the state of the art of carbon nanotube-reinforced polymers. The opportunity to apply carbon nanotubes as a filler for polymers and the improvement of the mechanical and functional properties are discussed. The application of non-layered nano- particles in polymer modification is described by M.Q. Zhang et aL. in Chapter 2. a grafting polymerization technique is applied to inorganic nanoparticles, which helps to provide the composites with balanced performance. Chapter 3, authored
Preface The use of polymer composites in various engineering applications has become state of the art. This multi-author volume provides a useful summary of updated knowledge on polymer composites in general, practically integrating experimental studies, theoretical analyses and computational modeling at different scales, i.e., from nano- to macroscale. Detailed consideration is given to four major areas: structure and properties of polymer nanocomposites, characterization and modeling, processing and application of macrocomposites, and mechanical performance of macrocomposites. The idea to organize this volume arose from a very impressive workshop - The First International Workshop on Polymers and Composites at IVW Kaiserslautern: Invited Humboldt-Fellows and Distinguished Scientists, which was held on May 22-24,2003 at the University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. The contributing authors were invited to incorporate updated knowledge and developments into their individual chapters within a year after the workshop, which finally led to these excellent contributions. The success of this workshop was mainly sponsored by the German Alexander von Humboldt Foundation through a Sofia Kovalevskaja Award Program, financed by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research within the "Investment in the Future Program" of the German Government. In 2001, the Humboldt Foundation launched this new award program in order to offer outstanding young researchers throughout the world an opportunity to establish their own work-groups and to develop innovative research concepts virtually in Germany. One of the editors, Z. Zhang, was among the 29 award winners in total, who was supported to establish an independent research team between 2001 and 2005 at the Institute for Composite Materials (IVW), University of Kaiserslautern, hosted by K. Friedrich. The importance of promoting better knowledge in the field of polymer composites is demonstrated by the contents of this volume, which contains 18 independent chapters. The first part of this volume deals with the topic of structure and properties of polymer nanocomposites. In Chapter 1, Schulte et al. review the state of the art of carbon nanotube-reinforced polymers. The opportunity to apply carbon nanotubes as a filler for polymers and the improvement of the mechanical and functional properties are discussed. The application of non-layered nanoparticles in polymer modification is described by M. Q. Zhang et al. in Chapter 2. A grafting polymerization technique is applied to inorganic nanoparticles, which helps to provide the composites with balanced performance. Chapter 3, authored
Preface by Haupert and Wetzel, focuses on the reinforcement of thermosetting polymers by the incorporation of micro-and nanoparticles. Homogeneously distributed inorganic nanoparticles possess the potential to improve the mechanical per formance of epoxy at very low filler contents. Privalko et al. present some interesting results concerning the synthesis and structure-property relationships of polyimide reinforced with a sol-gel derived organosilicon nanophase in Chapter 4, which suggest a good potential of low dielectric permittivity materials of this nanocomposite. Chapter 5 by Varghese and Karger- Kocsis focuses on the layered silicate/rubber nanocomposites via latex and solution intercalations. The structure-property relationships are discussed based on the dispersion state of the clay and the aspect ratio of the silicate layers. In Chapter 6, Sreekala and Eger report the property improvements of an epoxy resin by nano-silica particle reinforcement. The incorporation of SiO2 nanoparticles into a reactive epoxy resin via a sol-gel process generated a new class of nanocomposites with perfect nanoparticle dispe Part II focuses on some special characterization methods and modeling in the field of polymer composites. Chapter 7 by Goda et aL. deals with micro-scratch testing and finite element contact and debonding analysis of polymer composites a finite element macro/micro contact model has been introduced with the displacement coupling technique in order to study wear and failure mechanisms in real fiber-reinforced composites. Chapter 8, authored by Lauke et al concentrates mainly on the determination of the interface strength of polymer- polymer joints by a curved interface tensile test. A new experimental method for the determination of the adhesion strength between two different materials is proposed and the stress concentration at the interface as a function of applied load is derived by the finite element method. In Chapter 9, Evstatiev et al present the manufacturing and characterization of microfibrillar reinforced composites from different thermoplastic polymer blends. Various examples of the and processing of this new type of polymer-polymer composites are given and their structure-property relationships are investigated. Z. Zhang and friedrich review the state of the art of the tribological properties of micro-and nanoparticle reinforced polymer composites in Chapter 10. Nanoparticles have a significant influence on the wear performance of polymers and composites. Macrocomposites: Processing and Application"is the topic of the third part of this volume. In Chapter 1l, Nunes et al. consider the production of thermoplastic towpregs and towpreg-based composites a purposely built powder coating equipment was used to make thermoplastic matrix towpregs and pre- consolidated tapes(prepregs)from continuous fibers and a polymer powder. The mechanical properties of the composites were determined in order to assess the efficiency of this new process. Chapter 12 by Mitschang and ogale deals with the nfacturing of tailored reinforcements for liquid composite molding (LCM) processes. Stitching and sewing processes exhibit high potential to generate various
mi Preface by Haupert and Wetzel, focuses on the reinforcement of thermosetting polymers by the incorporation of micro- and nanoparticles. Homogeneously distributed inorganic nanoparticles possess the potential to improve the mechanical performance of epoxy at very low filler contents. Privalko et al. present some interesting results concerning the synthesis and structure-property relationships of polyimide reinforced with a sol-gel derived organosilicon nanophase in Chapter 4, which suggest a good potential of low dielectric permittivity materials of this nanocomposite. Chapter 5 by Varghese and Karger-Kocsis focuses on the layered silicatelrubber nanocomposites via latex and solution intercalations. The structure-property relationships are discussed based on the dispersion state of the clay and the aspect ratio of the silicate layers. In Chapter 6, Sreekala and Eger report the property improvements of an epoxy resin by nano-silica particle reinforcement. The incorporation of SiO, nanoparticles into a reactive epoxy resin via a sol-gel process generated a new class of nanocomposites with perfect nanoparticle dispersion. Part I1 focuses on some special characterization methods and modeling in the field of polymer composites. Chapter 7 by Goda et al. deals with micro-scratch testing and finite element contact and debonding analysis of polymer composites. A finite element macro/micro contact model has been introduced with the displacement coupling technique in order to study wear and failure mechanisms in real fiber-reinforced composites. Chapter 8, authored by Lauke et al., concentrates mainly on the determination of the interface strength of polymerpolymer joints by a curved interface tensile test. A new experimental method for the determination of the adhesion strength between two different materials is proposed and the stress concentration at the interface as a function of applied load is derived by the finite element method. In Chapter 9, Evstatiev et al. present the manufacturing and characterization of microfibrillar reinforced composites from different thermoplastic polymer blends. Various examples of the manufacturing and processing of this new type of polymer-polymer composites are given and their structure-property relationships are investigated. Z. Zhang and Friedrich review the state of the art of the tribological properties of micro- and nanoparticle reinforced polymer composites in Chapter 10. Nanoparticles have a significant influence on the wear performance of polymers and composites. "Macrocomposites: Processing and Application" is the topic of the third part of this volume. In Chapter 11, Nunes et al. consider the production of thermoplastic towpregs and towpreg-based composites. A purposely built powdercoating equipment was used to make thermoplastic matrix towpregs and preconsolidated tapes (prepregs) from continuous fibers and a polymer powder. The mechanical properties of the composites were determined in order to assess the efficiency of this new process. Chapter 12 by Mitschang and Ogale deals with the manufacturing of tailored reinforcements for liquid composite molding (LCM) processes. Stitching and sewing processes exhibit high potential to generate various