1.5.1 Civil Engineering Civil Engineering is generally considered the oldest engineering discipline-its works trace back to the Egyptian pyramids and before.Many of the skills possessed by civil engineering (e.g., building walls,bridges,roads)are extremely useful in warfare,so these engineers worked on both military and civilian projects.To distinguish those engineers who work on civilian projects from those who work on military projects,the British engineer John Smeaton coined the term civil engineer in about 1750. Ancient Egypt:From Engineer to God Egyptian civilization ascended from the Late Stone Age,around 3400 B.C.,with vigorous advancements in several engineering fields.While we can still see the spectacular construction feats of the Pyramid Age (3000-2500 B.C.),the ancient Egyptians also pioneered other engineering fields.As hydraulic engineers,they manipulated the Nile River for agricultural and commercial purpose;as chemical engineers,they produced dyes,cement,glass beer,and wine; as mining engineers,they extracted copper from the Sinai Peninsula for use in the bronze tools that built the pyramids. One of the key players of this period was Imhotep,known today as "The Father of Stone Masonry Construction."Imhotep served the pharaoh Zoser as chief priest,magician,physician, and head engineer.Most archaeologists credit Imhotep with designing and building the first pyramid,a stepped tomb for Zoser at Sakkara,around 2980 B.C.This pyramid consists of six stages,each 30 feet high,built from local limestone,and hewn with copper chisels.While only 200 feet high(the height of an 18-story building),this unique structure served as a prototype for the Great Pyramid at Giza,constructed 70 years later,which covers four city blocks in area and originally stood 480 feet high. Imhotep acquired an extensive reputation as a sage,and in later centuries was recognized as the Egyptian god of healing.Although Egyptian civilization saw great engineering progress during the Pyramid Age,2000 years of stagnation and decline followed. Civil engineers are responsible for constructing large-scale projects such as roads,buildings, airports,dams,bridges,harbors,canals,water systems,and sewage system. 1.5.2 Mechanical Engineering Mechanical engineering was practiced concurrently with engineering because many of the devices needed to construct great civil engineering projects were mechanical in nature.During the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850),wonderful machines were developed:steam engines, internal combustion engines,mechanical booms,sewing machines,and more.Here we saw the birth of mechanical engineering as a discipline distinct from civil engineering. ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AND RELATED FIELDS Mechanical engineers make engines,vehicles (automobiles,trains,planes),machine tools (lathers,mills),heat exchangers,industrial process equipment,power plants,consumer items (typewriters,pens),and systems for heating,refrigeration,air conditioning,and ventilation. Mechanical engineers must know structures,heat transfer,fluid mechanics,materials,and thermodynamics,among many other things. 1.5.3 Electrical Engineering Soon after physicists began to understand electricity,the electrical engineering profession was
1.5.1 Civil Engineering Civil Engineering is generally considered the oldest engineering discipline—its works trace back to the Egyptian pyramids and before. Many of the skills possessed by civil engineering (e.g., building walls, bridges, roads) are extremely useful in warfare, so these engineers worked on both military and civilian projects. To distinguish those engineers who work on civilian projects from those who work on military projects, the British engineer John Smeaton coined the term civil engineer in about 1750. Ancient Egypt: From Engineer to God Egyptian civilization ascended from the Late Stone Age, around 3400 B.C., with vigorous advancements in several engineering fields. While we can still see the spectacular construction feats of the Pyramid Age (3000-2500 B.C.), the ancient Egyptians also pioneered other engineering fields. As hydraulic engineers, they manipulated the Nile River for agricultural and commercial purpose; as chemical engineers, they produced dyes, cement, glass beer, and wine; as mining engineers, they extracted copper from the Sinai Peninsula for use in the bronze tools that built the pyramids. One of the key players of this period was Imhotep, known today as “The Father of Stone Masonry Construction.” Imhotep served the pharaoh Zoser as chief priest, magician, physician, and head engineer. Most archaeologists credit Imhotep with designing and building the first pyramid, a stepped tomb for Zoser at Sakkara, around 2980 B.C. This pyramid consists of six stages, each 30 feet high, built from local limestone, and hewn with copper chisels. While only 200 feet high (the height of an 18 –story building), this unique structure served as a prototype for the Great Pyramid at Giza, constructed 70 years later, which covers four city blocks in area and originally stood 480 feet high. Imhotep acquired an extensive reputation as a sage, and in later centuries was recognized as the Egyptian god of healing. Although Egyptian civilization saw great engineering progress during the Pyramid Age, 2000 years of stagnation and decline followed. Civil engineers are responsible for constructing large-scale projects such as roads, buildings, airports, dams, bridges, harbors, canals, water systems, and sewage system. 1.5.2 Mechanical Engineering Mechanical engineering was practiced concurrently with engineering because many of the devices needed to construct great civil engineering projects were mechanical in nature. During the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850), wonderful machines were developed: steam engines, internal combustion engines, mechanical booms, sewing machines, and more. Here we saw the birth of mechanical engineering as a discipline distinct from civil engineering. ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AND RELATED FIELDS Mechanical engineers make engines, vehicles (automobiles, trains, planes), machine tools (lathers, mills), heat exchangers, industrial process equipment, power plants, consumer items (typewriters, pens), and systems for heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, and ventilation. Mechanical engineers must know structures, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, materials, and thermodynamics, among many other things. 1.5.3 Electrical Engineering Soon after physicists began to understand electricity, the electrical engineering profession was
born.Electricity has severed two main functions in society:the transmission of power and of information.Those electrical engineers who specialize in power transmission design and build electric generators,transformers,electric motors,and other high-power equipment.Those who specialize in information transmission design and build radios,televisions,computers,antennae, instrumentation,controllers,and communications equipment. Electronic equipment can be analog (meaning the voltages and currents in device are continuous values)or digital(meaning only discrete voltages and currents can be attained by the device).As analog equipment is more susceptible to noise and interference than digital equipment,many electrical engineers specialize in digital circuits. Modern life is largely characterized by electronic equipment.Daily,we rely on many electronic devices-televisions,telephones,computers,calculators,and so on.In the future,the number and variety of these devices can only increase.The fact that electrical engineering is the largest discipline -comprising over 25%of all engineers -underscores the importance of electrical engineering in modern society. 1.5.4 Chemical Engineering By 1880,the chemical industry was becoming important in the U.S.economy.At that time,the chemical industry hired two types of technical persons:mechanical engineers and industrial chemists.The chemical engineer combined these two persons into one.The first chemical engineering degree was offered at the Massachusetts institute of Technology(MIT)in 1888. Chemical engineering is characterized by a concept called unit operations.A unit operation is an individual piece of process equipment (chemical reactor,heat exchanger,pump,compressor, distillation column).Just as electrical engineers assemble complex circuits from components parts(resistors,capacitors,inductors,batteries),chemical engineers assemble chemical plants by combining unit operations together. Chemical engineers process raw materials (petroleum,coal,ores,corn,trees)into refined products(gasoline,heating oil,plastics,and pharmaceuticals,paper).Biochemical engineering is a growing subdiscipline of chemical engineering.Biochemical engineers combine biological processes with traditional chemical engineering to produce food and pharmaceuticals and to treat wastes. 1.5.5 Industrial Engineering In the late 1800s,industries began to use "scientific management"techniques to improve efficiency.Early pioneers in this field did time-motion studies on workers to reduce the amount of labor required a product.Today,industrial engineers develop,design,install,and operate integrated systems of people,machinery,and information to produce either goods or services. Industrial engineers bridge engineering and management. Industrial engineers are famous for designing and operating assembly lines that optimally combine machinery and people.However,they can also optimize train or plane schedules, hospital operations,banks,or overweight package delivery services.Industrial engineers who specialize in human factors design products (e.g.,hand tools,airplane cockpits)with the human user in mind. 1.5.6 Aerospace Engineering
born. Electricity has severed two main functions in society: the transmission of power and of information. Those electrical engineers who specialize in power transmission design and build electric generators, transformers, electric motors, and other high-power equipment. Those who specialize in information transmission design and build radios, televisions, computers, antennae, instrumentation, controllers, and communications equipment. Electronic equipment can be analog (meaning the voltages and currents in device are continuous values) or digital (meaning only discrete voltages and currents can be attained by the device). As analog equipment is more susceptible to noise and interference than digital equipment, many electrical engineers specialize in digital circuits. Modern life is largely characterized by electronic equipment. Daily, we rely on many electronic devices—televisions, telephones, computers, calculators, and so on. In the future, the number and variety of these devices can only increase. The fact that electrical engineering is the largest discipline — comprising over 25% of all engineers — underscores the importance of electrical engineering in modern society. 1.5.4 Chemical Engineering By 1880, the chemical industry was becoming important in the U.S. economy. At that time, the chemical industry hired two types of technical persons: mechanical engineers and industrial chemists. The chemical engineer combined these two persons into one. The first chemical engineering degree was offered at the Massachusetts institute of Technology (MIT) in 1888. Chemical engineering is characterized by a concept called unit operations. A unit operation is an individual piece of process equipment (chemical reactor, heat exchanger, pump, compressor, distillation column). Just as electrical engineers assemble complex circuits from components parts (resistors, capacitors, inductors, batteries), chemical engineers assemble chemical plants by combining unit operations together. Chemical engineers process raw materials (petroleum, coal, ores, corn, trees) into refined products (gasoline, heating oil, plastics, and pharmaceuticals, paper). Biochemical engineering is a growing subdiscipline of chemical engineering. Biochemical engineers combine biological processes with traditional chemical engineering to produce food and pharmaceuticals and to treat wastes. 1.5.5 Industrial Engineering In the late 1800s, industries began to use “scientific management” techniques to improve efficiency. Early pioneers in this field did time-motion studies on workers to reduce the amount of labor required a product. Today, industrial engineers develop, design, install, and operate integrated systems of people, machinery, and information to produce either goods or services. Industrial engineers bridge engineering and management. Industrial engineers are famous for designing and operating assembly lines that optimally combine machinery and people. However, they can also optimize train or plane schedules, hospital operations, banks, or overweight package delivery services. Industrial engineers who specialize in human factors design products (e.g., hand tools, airplane cockpits) with the human user in mind. 1.5.6 Aerospace Engineering
Aerospace engineers design vehicles that operate in the atmosphere and in space.It is a diverse and rapidly changing field that includes four major technology areas:aerodynamics,structures and materials,flight and orbital mechanics and control,and propulsion.Aerospace engineers help design and build high-performance flight vehicles(e.g.,aircraft,missiles,and spacecraft)as well as automobiles.Also,aerospace engineers confront problems associated with wind effects on buildings,air pollution,and other atmosphere phenomena. 1.5.7 Material Engineering Material engineers are concerned with obtaining the materials required by modern society. Material engineers may be further classified as: Geological engineers,who study rocks,soils,and geological formations to find valuable ores and petroleum reserves. Mining engineers,who extract ores such as coal,iron,and tin. Petroleum engineers,who find,produce,and transport oil and natural gas. Ceramic engineers,who produce ceramic (i.e.,nonmetallic mineral)products. Plastics engineers,who produce plastic products. Metallurgical engineers,who produce metal products from ores or create metal alloys with superior properties. Material science engineers,who study the fundamental science behind the properties(e.g., strength,corrosion resistance,conductivity)of material. 1.5.8 Agricultural Engineering Agricultural engineering help farmers efficiently produce food and fiber.This discipline was born with the McCormick reaper.Since then,agricultural engineers have developed many other farm implements (tractors,plows,choppers,etc.)to reduce farm labor requirements.Modern agriculture engineers apply knowledge of mechanics,hydrology,computers,electronics, chemistry,and biology to solve agricultural problems.Agricultural engineers may specialize in: food and biochemical engineering;water and environmental quality;machine and energy systems;and food,feed,and fiber processing. 1.5.9 Nuclear Engineering Nuclear engineers design systems that employ nuclear energy,such as nuclear power plants, nuclear ships (e.g.,submarines and aircraft carriers),and unclear spacecraft.Some nuclear engineers are involved with nuclear medicine;other are working on the design of fusion reactors that potentially will generate limitless energy with minimal environmental damage. 1.5.10 Architectural Engineering Architectural engineers combine the engineer's knowledge of structures,materials,and acoustics with the architect's knowledge of building esthetics and functionality. 1.5.11 Biomedical Engineering Biomedical engineers combine traditional engineering fields(mechanical,electrical,chemical, and industrial)with medicine and human physiology.They develop prosthetic devices (e.g., artificial limbs),artificial kidneys,pacemakers,and artificial hearts.Recent developments will
Aerospace engineers design vehicles that operate in the atmosphere and in space. It is a diverse and rapidly changing field that includes four major technology areas: aerodynamics, structures and materials, flight and orbital mechanics and control, and propulsion. Aerospace engineers help design and build high-performance flight vehicles (e.g., aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft) as well as automobiles. Also, aerospace engineers confront problems associated with wind effects on buildings, air pollution, and other atmosphere phenomena. 1.5.7 Material Engineering Material engineers are concerned with obtaining the materials required by modern society. Material engineers may be further classified as: · Geological engineers, who study rocks, soils, and geological formations to find valuable ores and petroleum reserves. · Mining engineers, who extract ores such as coal, iron, and tin. · Petroleum engineers, who find, produce, and transport oil and natural gas. · Ceramic engineers, who produce ceramic (i.e., nonmetallic mineral) products. · Plastics engineers, who produce plastic products. · Metallurgical engineers, who produce metal products from ores or create metal alloys with superior properties. · Material science engineers, who study the fundamental science behind the properties (e.g., strength, corrosion resistance, conductivity) of material. 1.5.8 Agricultural Engineering Agricultural engineering help farmers efficiently produce food and fiber. This discipline was born with the McCormick reaper. Since then, agricultural engineers have developed many other farm implements (tractors, plows, choppers, etc.) to reduce farm labor requirements. Modern agriculture engineers apply knowledge of mechanics, hydrology, computers, electronics, chemistry, and biology to solve agricultural problems. Agricultural engineers may specialize in: food and biochemical engineering; water and environmental quality; machine and energy systems; and food, feed, and fiber processing. 1.5.9 Nuclear Engineering Nuclear engineers design systems that employ nuclear energy, such as nuclear power plants, nuclear ships (e.g., submarines and aircraft carriers), and unclear spacecraft. Some nuclear engineers are involved with nuclear medicine; other are working on the design of fusion reactors that potentially will generate limitless energy with minimal environmental damage. 1.5.10 Architectural Engineering Architectural engineers combine the engineer’s knowledge of structures, materials, and acoustics with the architect’s knowledge of building esthetics and functionality. 1.5.11 Biomedical Engineering Biomedical engineers combine traditional engineering fields (mechanical, electrical, chemical, and industrial) with medicine and human physiology. They develop prosthetic devices (e.g., artificial limbs), artificial kidneys, pacemakers, and artificial hearts. Recent developments will
enable some deaf people to hear and some blind people to see.Biomedical engineers can work in hospitals as clinical engineers,in medical centers as medical researchers,in medical industries designing clinical devices,in the FDA evaluating medical devices,or as physicians providing health care. 1.5.12 Computer Science and Engineering Computer science and engineering evolved from electrical engineering.Computer scientists understand both computer software and hardware,but they emphasize software.In contrast, computer engineers understand both computer software and hardware but emphasize hardware. Computer scientists and engineers design and build computers ranging from supercomputers to personal computers,network computers together,write operating system software that regulates computer functions,or write applications software such as word processors and spreadsheets.Given the increasingly important role of computers in modern society,computer science and engineering are rapidly growing professions. 1.5.13 Engineering Technology Engineering technologists bridge the gap between engineers and technicians.Engineering technologists typically receive a 4-year BS degree and share many courses with their engineering cousins.Their course work evenly emphasizes both theory and hands-on applications,whereas the engineering disciplines described above primarily emphasize theory with less emphasis on hands-on applications.Engineering technologists can acquire specialties such as general electronics,computers,and mechanics.With their skills,engineering technologists perform such functions as designing and building electronic circuits,repairing faulty circuits,maintaining computers,and programming numerically controlled machine shop equipment. 1.5.14 Engineering Technicians Engineering technicians typically receive a 2-year associate's degree.Their education primarily emphasizes hands-on applications with a minimum of theory.Their work is often directed by engineers.Because they have little theoretical background,their assigned tasks must be well defined,such as drafting,taking laboratory data,analyzing data according to prescribed procedures,and constructing electronic circuits designed by someone else. 1.5.15 Artisans Artisans often receive no formal schooling beyond high school.Typically,they learn their skills by apprenticing with experienced artisans who show them the "tricks of the trade."Artisans have a variety of manual skills such as machining,welding,carpentry,and equipment operation.Artisans are generally responsible for transforming engineering ideas into reality;therefore,engineers often must work closely with them.Wise engineers highly value the opinions of artisans frequently have many years of practical experience
enable some deaf people to hear and some blind people to see. Biomedical engineers can work in hospitals as clinical engineers, in medical centers as medical researchers, in medical industries designing clinical devices, in the FDA evaluating medical devices, or as physicians providing health care. 1.5.12 Computer Science and Engineering Computer science and engineering evolved from electrical engineering. Computer scientists understand both computer software and hardware, but they emphasize software. In contrast, computer engineers understand both computer software and hardware but emphasize hardware. Computer scientists and engineers design and build computers ranging from supercomputers to personal computers, network computers together, write operating system software that regulates computer functions, or write applications software such as word processors and spreadsheets. Given the increasingly important role of computers in modern society, computer science and engineering are rapidly growing professions. 1.5.13 Engineering Technology Engineering technologists bridge the gap between engineers and technicians. Engineering technologists typically receive a 4-year BS degree and share many courses with their engineering cousins. Their course work evenly emphasizes both theory and hands-on applications, whereas the engineering disciplines described above primarily emphasize theory with less emphasis on hands-on applications. Engineering technologists can acquire specialties such as general electronics, computers, and mechanics. With their skills, engineering technologists perform such functions as designing and building electronic circuits, repairing faulty circuits, maintaining computers, and programming numerically controlled machine shop equipment. 1.5.14 Engineering Technicians Engineering technicians typically receive a 2-year associate’s degree. Their education primarily emphasizes hands-on applications with a minimum of theory. Their work is often directed by engineers. Because they have little theoretical background, their assigned tasks must be well defined, such as drafting, taking laboratory data, analyzing data according to prescribed procedures, and constructing electronic circuits designed by someone else. 1.5.15 Artisans Artisans often receive no formal schooling beyond high school. Typically, they learn their skills by apprenticing with experienced artisans who show them the “tricks of the trade.” Artisans have a variety of manual skills such as machining, welding, carpentry, and equipment operation. Artisans are generally responsible for transforming engineering ideas into reality; therefore, engineers often must work closely with them. Wise engineers highly value the opinions of artisans frequently have many years of practical experience
1.10 TRAITS OF A SUCCESSEFUL ENGINEER All of us would like to be successful in our engineering careers,because it brings personal fulfillment and financial reward.(For most engineers,financial reward is not the highest priority. Surveys of practicing engineers show that they value exciting and challenging work performed in a pleasant work environment over monetary compensation.)As s student,you may feel that performing well in your engineering courses will guarantee success in the real engineering world. Unfortunately,there are no guarantees in life.Ultimate success is achieved by mastering many traits,of which academic prowess is but one.By mastering the following traits,you will increase your chances of achieving a successful engineering career: Interpersonal skills.Engineers are typically employed in industry where success is necessarily a group effort.Successful engineers have good interpersonal skills.Not only must they effectively communicate with other highly educated engineers,but also with artisans,who may have substantially less education,or other professionals who are highly educated in other fields (marketing,finance,psychology,etc.). Communication skills.Although the engineering curriculum emphasizes science and mathematics,some practicing engineers report that they spend up to 80%of their time in oral and written communications.Engineers generate engineering drawings or sketches to describe a new product,be it a machine part,an electronic circuit,or a crude flowchart of new computer code.They document test results in reports.They write memos,manuals,proposals to bid on jobs,and technical papers for trade journals.They give sales presentations to potential clients and make oral presentations at technical meetings.They communicate with the workers who actually build the devices designed by engineers.They speak at civic groups to educate the public about the impact of their plant on the local economy,or address safety concerns raised by the public. Leadership.Leadership is one of most desired skills for success.Good engineering leaders do not follow the herd;rather,they assess the situation and develop a plan to meet the group's objectives.Part of develop good leadership skills is learning how to be a good followers as well. Competence.Engineers are hired for their knowledge.If their knowledge is faulty,they are of little value to their employer.Performing well in your engineering courses will improve your competence. Logical thinking.Successful engineers base decisions on reason rather than emotions. Mathematics and science,which are based upon logic and experimentation,provide the foundations of our profession. Quantitative thinking.Engineering education emphasizes quantitative skills.We transform qualitative ideas into quantitative mathematical models that we use to make informed decisions. Follow-through.Many engineering projects take years or decades to complete.Engineers have to stay motivated and carry a project through to completion.People who need immediate gratification may be frustrated in many engineering projects. Continuing education.An undergraduate engineering education is just the beginning of a lifetime of learning.It is impossible for your professors to teach all relevant current knowledge in a 4-year curriculum.Also,over your 40-plus-year career,knowledge will expand dramatically. Unless you stay current,you will quickly become obsolete. Maintaining a professional library.Throughout your formal education,you will be required to
1.10 TRAITS OF A SUCCESSEFUL ENGINEER All of us would like to be successful in our engineering careers, because it brings personal fulfillment and financial reward. (For most engineers, financial reward is not the highest priority. Surveys of practicing engineers show that they value exciting and challenging work performed in a pleasant work environment over monetary compensation.) As s student, you may feel that performing well in your engineering courses will guarantee success in the real engineering world. Unfortunately, there are no guarantees in life. Ultimate success is achieved by mastering many traits, of which academic prowess is but one. By mastering the following traits, you will increase your chances of achieving a successful engineering career: ·Interpersonal skills. Engineers are typically employed in industry where success is necessarily a group effort. Successful engineers have good interpersonal skills. Not only must they effectively communicate with other highly educated engineers, but also with artisans, who may have substantially less education, or other professionals who are highly educated in other fields (marketing, finance, psychology, etc.). · Communication skills. Although the engineering curriculum emphasizes science and mathematics, some practicing engineers report that they spend up to 80% of their time in oral and written communications. Engineers generate engineering drawings or sketches to describe a new product, be it a machine part, an electronic circuit, or a crude flowchart of new computer code. They document test results in reports. They write memos, manuals, proposals to bid on jobs, and technical papers for trade journals. They give sales presentations to potential clients and make oral presentations at technical meetings. They communicate with the workers who actually build the devices designed by engineers. They speak at civic groups to educate the public about the impact of their plant on the local economy, or address safety concerns raised by the public. ·Leadership. Leadership is one of most desired skills for success. Good engineering leaders do not follow the herd; rather, they assess the situation and develop a plan to meet the group’s objectives. Part of develop good leadership skills is learning how to be a good followers as well. ·Competence. Engineers are hired for their knowledge. If their knowledge is faulty, they are of little value to their employer. Performing well in your engineering courses will improve your competence. · Logical thinking. Successful engineers base decisions on reason rather than emotions. Mathematics and science, which are based upon logic and experimentation, provide the foundations of our profession. · Quantitative thinking. Engineering education emphasizes quantitative skills. We transform qualitative ideas into quantitative mathematical models that we use to make informed decisions. ·Follow-through. Many engineering projects take years or decades to complete. Engineers have to stay motivated and carry a project through to completion. People who need immediate gratification may be frustrated in many engineering projects. · Continuing education. An undergraduate engineering education is just the beginning of a lifetime of learning. It is impossible for your professors to teach all relevant current knowledge in a 4-year curriculum. Also, over your 40-plus-year career, knowledge will expand dramatically. Unless you stay current, you will quickly become obsolete. ·Maintaining a professional library. Throughout your formal education, you will be required to