1.2 Discovery of America(1492) Europeans'outward thrust began in the 10th century when Norse adventurers reached North America, but their colonies collapsed eventually.As a series of crusading armies after 1096 tried to wrest Palestine from Muslim control,European attention turned eastward.A brisk trade with the Middle East began and brought silks and spices to Europe.Marco Polo(1254-1324),the most famous Western traveler,and other 13th-century merchants had even traveled overland through the Silk Road to East Asia to buy directly from the Chinese.In the 14th century,Italian merchants grew rich from the spices and silk trade and used their fortunes to finance the Renaissance(1300-1650)and overseas expansion.In the mid-15th century,Europe experienced renewed prosperity and population growth.Competing for commercial advantage,the newly centralized European states projected their power overseas,and improved maritime technology permitted this European expansion.By that time,shipbuilders had added the triangular Arab sail to their heavy cargo ships.They created a highly maneuverable ship,the caravel,to sail the stormy Atlantic.Further,the growing use of the compass and astrolabe permitted mariners to calculate their bearings on the open sea.Hand in hand with the technological advances of this"maritime revolution,"Renaissance scholars corrected ancient geographical data and drew increasingly accurate maps,while new findings in astronomy and sophisticated use of Arabic mathematics sharpened Europeans'knowledge of the world. The Portuguese first felt the itch to explore new worlds.Their zeal for continuing the struggle against the Muslims,recently driven from Portugal,combined with an anxious search for new markets.In 1488,the Portuguese reached Africa's southern tip,the Cape of Good Hope,opening the possibility of direct trade with India.In 1498,Vasco da Gama(1469-1524)led a Portuguese fleet around the cape and on to India For more than a century,the Portuguese remained an imperial presence in the Indian Ocean and the East Indies,which later became modern Indonesia.But far more significantly,they brought Europeans face to face with black Africans and profited a great deal from the lucrative African slave trade.Europeans had used slaves since ancient Greece and Rome,but ominous changes took place in European slavery once the Portuguese began making voyages to Africa.By 1450,the Portuguese had created large slave-labor plantations on their Atlantic and Mediterranean islands.Race became the explicit basis of the slavery system. Africans'blackness and alien religion dehumanized them in European eyes.As racial prejudice hardened, Europeans found it easy to justify black slavery.Because the victims of the slavery system were physically distinctive and culturally alien,slavery became a lifelong hereditary and despised status. The fascinating,contradictory figure of Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)embodied European's varied motives for expansion.The son of a weaver from the Italian city of Genoa and an expert sailor, Columbus became obsessed with the idea that Europeans could reach Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic.Combining an overestimation of Asia's eastward thrust with an underestimation of the earth's circumference,he came to the conclusion that the world was small,and that the open-sea distance from Europe to Asia was roughly 3,000 miles,instead of the actual 12,000 miles.Religious fervor led Columbus to dream of carrying Christianity around the globe,but he also hungered for wealth and glory.Nevertheless, what distinguished Columbus was his persistence in hawking his "enterprise of the Indies"around Europe's royal courts and his final success with Spain.There was gold in Asia,Columbus persuaded the Spanish royalty,and certainly silks and spices:Marco Polo and others had brought back marvelous things from their overland expeditions centuries before.Now that the Turks who had conquered Constantinople and the eastern Mediterranean had controlled the land routes to Asia,a sea route was needed.Eventually,as the Portuguese sailors were working their way around the southern tip of Africa,Spain decided to gamble on a long sail across an unknown ocean. In 1492,the rulers of newly united Spain,Isabella of Castile (1451-1504)and Ferdinand of Aragon 1
1.2 Discovery of America (1492) Europeans’ outward thrust began in the 10th century when Norse adventurers reached North America, but their colonies collapsed eventually. As a series of crusading armies after 1096 tried to wrest Palestine from Muslim control, European attention turned eastward. A brisk trade with the Middle East began and brought silks and spices to Europe. Marco Polo (1254–1324), the most famous Western traveler, and other 13th–century merchants had even traveled overland through the Silk Road to East Asia to buy directly from the Chinese. In the 14th century, Italian merchants grew rich from the spices and silk trade and used their fortunes to finance the Renaissance (1300–1650) and overseas expansion. In the mid–15th century, Europe experienced renewed prosperity and population growth. Competing for commercial advantage, the newly centralized European states projected their power overseas, and improved maritime technology permitted this European expansion. By that time, shipbuilders had added the triangular Arab sail to their heavy cargo ships. They created a highly maneuverable ship, the caravel, to sail the stormy Atlantic. Further, the growing use of the compass and astrolabe permitted mariners to calculate their bearings on the open sea. Hand in hand with the technological advances of this “maritime revolution,” Renaissance scholars corrected ancient geographical data and drew increasingly accurate maps, while new findings in astronomy and sophisticated use of Arabic mathematics sharpened Europeans’ knowledge of the world. The Portuguese first felt the itch to explore new worlds. Their zeal for continuing the struggle against the Muslims, recently driven from Portugal, combined with an anxious search for new markets. In 1488, the Portuguese reached Africa’s southern tip, the Cape of Good Hope, opening the possibility of direct trade with India. In 1498, Vasco da Gama (1469–1524) led a Portuguese fleet around the cape and on to India. For more than a century, the Portuguese remained an imperial presence in the Indian Ocean and the East Indies, which later became modern Indonesia. But far more significantly, they brought Europeans face to face with black Africans and profited a great deal from the lucrative African slave trade. Europeans had used slaves since ancient Greece and Rome, but ominous changes took place in European slavery once the Portuguese began making voyages to Africa. By 1450, the Portuguese had created large slave–labor plantations on their Atlantic and Mediterranean islands. Race became the explicit basis of the slavery system. Africans’ blackness and alien religion dehumanized them in European eyes. As racial prejudice hardened, Europeans found it easy to justify black slavery. Because the victims of the slavery system were physically distinctive and culturally alien, slavery became a lifelong hereditary and despised status. The fascinating, contradictory figure of Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) embodied European’s varied motives for expansion. The son of a weaver from the Italian city of Genoa and an expert sailor, Columbus became obsessed with the idea that Europeans could reach Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic. Combining an overestimation of Asia’s eastward thrust with an underestimation of the earth’s circumference, he came to the conclusion that the world was small, and that the open–sea distance from Europe to Asia was roughly 3,000 miles, instead of the actual 12,000 miles. Religious fervor led Columbus to dream of carrying Christianity around the globe, but he also hungered for wealth and glory. Nevertheless, what distinguished Columbus was his persistence in hawking his “enterprise of the Indies” around Europe’s royal courts and his final success with Spain. There was gold in Asia, Columbus persuaded the Spanish royalty, and certainly silks and spices; Marco Polo and others had brought back marvelous things from their overland expeditions centuries before. Now that the Turks who had conquered Constantinople and the eastern Mediterranean had controlled the land routes to Asia, a sea route was needed. Eventually, as the Portuguese sailors were working their way around the southern tip of Africa, Spain decided to gamble on a long sail across an unknown ocean. In 1492, the rulers of newly united Spain, Isabella of Castile (1451–1504) and Ferdinand of Aragon 1
(1452-1516),accepted Columbus's offer,hoping to break a threatening Portuguese monopoly on Asian trade. In return for bringing back gold and spices,they promised Columbus 10 percent of the profits,governorship over newfound lands,and the fame that would go with the new title of"Great Admiral of the Ocean." Columbus set out with three sailing ships,the largest of which was the Santa Maria,perhaps 100 feet long, and 39 crew members.He would never have made it to Asia,which was thousands of miles farther away than he had calculated,and would have been doomed by that great expanse of sea.But Columbus was lucky. One-fourth of the way there he came upon an unknown and uncharted land that lay between Europe and Asia.the Americas.On October 12.1492,one of his sailors caught sight of the early morning moon shining on white sands,and cried out "Tierra!Tierra!"It was an island in the Bahamas near Florida.When Columbus and his sailors came ashore,carrying swords,and speaking oddly,the Indians on the island,naked, tawny,and full of wonder,emerged from their villages onto the beach to greet them,brought them food, water,gifts.They did not bear arms,and did not even know them.When Columbus showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. Columbus's "discovery"of the Americas was certainly the most historically important,because he inaugurated permanent interaction between the Old World and the New.The Native Americans introduced Europeans to many new plants and foods,including beans,corn,tomatoes,tobacco,sweet and white potatoes.They also infected Europeans with syphilis for the first time.Europeans brought sugar cane, bluegrasses,and pigs,which all flourished in the new lands.Europeans also introduced them to armor, powerful steel swords,guns,and explosives.They had the horse,which gave them tremendous mobility and terrified the Indians,who had never seen such a fearsome beast.They had trained greyhounds that could chew the face off a man.The European most powerful gifts to the Native Americans were invisible killers they brought with themselves in their blood and breath,infectious diseases.Having been isolated from the rest of the world,the Indians had no immunity to European diseases such as smallpox,diphtheria,influenza, and cholera.Common childhood diseases like measles and mumps hit them with ferocious force.Smallpox alone could wipe out an entire tribe in one harrowing visitation,partly because it struck almost everyone at the same time,leaving no one to tend to the victims.Because of European diseases,the population of Native Americans decreased at a high speed,at one time with a mortality of 90 percent.It is no wonder that the invasion of North America has been called"the greatest demographic disaster in the history of the world." 1.5 The English Reformation(1534) The Renaissance(1300-1650)began in Italy in the 14th century,and soon spread all through Western Europe,beginning with the end of the Middle Ages (476-1453)and the commencement of modern civilization.With the Renaissance came advances in the arts,government,philosophy,and science.The arts ceased to be primarily religious,concerned with the heavenly world.Artists and their patrons began to display a growing interest in looking at life from a secular perspective.The most important music was now heard outside rather than inside the churches,and the great builders of the age now more frequently constructed palaces and town halls than cathedrals and monasteries.Just as philosophers began to emphasize the pagan Greek maxim"man is the measure of all things,"so did sculptors begin to portray the human form larger than life,dominating its surroundings.Painters started to depict the human face and form more realistically.They painted fewer pictures of eternity,heaven,and angels,and more pictures of the earth and the people on it.Thinkers and philosophers turned more and more from the religious concerns of the middle ages to the study of what was modern and scientific.They speculated,questioned,and argued with authorities and with tradition.The invention of scientific instruments such as the microscope in 1590 and the telescope in 1609 quickly inspired a new spirit of scientific enquiry.After Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) 2
(1452–1516), accepted Columbus’s offer, hoping to break a threatening Portuguese monopoly on Asian trade. In return for bringing back gold and spices, they promised Columbus 10 percent of the profits, governorship over newfound lands, and the fame that would go with the new title of “Great Admiral of the Ocean.” Columbus set out with three sailing ships, the largest of which was the Santa Maria, perhaps 100 feet long, and 39 crew members. He would never have made it to Asia, which was thousands of miles farther away than he had calculated, and would have been doomed by that great expanse of sea. But Columbus was lucky. One–fourth of the way there he came upon an unknown and uncharted land that lay between Europe and Asia, the Americas. On October 12, 1492, one of his sailors caught sight of the early morning moon shining on white sands, and cried out “Tierra! Tierra!” It was an island in the Bahamas near Florida. When Columbus and his sailors came ashore, carrying swords, and speaking oddly, the Indians on the island, naked, tawny, and full of wonder, emerged from their villages onto the beach to greet them, brought them food, water, gifts. They did not bear arms, and did not even know them. When Columbus showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. Columbus’s “discovery” of the Americas was certainly the most historically important, because he inaugurated permanent interaction between the Old World and the New. The Native Americans introduced Europeans to many new plants and foods, including beans, corn, tomatoes, tobacco, sweet and white potatoes. They also infected Europeans with syphilis for the first time. Europeans brought sugar cane, bluegrasses, and pigs, which all flourished in the new lands. Europeans also introduced them to armor, powerful steel swords, guns, and explosives. They had the horse, which gave them tremendous mobility and terrified the Indians, who had never seen such a fearsome beast. They had trained greyhounds that could chew the face off a man. The European most powerful gifts to the Native Americans were invisible killers they brought with themselves in their blood and breath, infectious diseases. Having been isolated from the rest of the world, the Indians had no immunity to European diseases such as smallpox, diphtheria, influenza, and cholera. Common childhood diseases like measles and mumps hit them with ferocious force. Smallpox alone could wipe out an entire tribe in one harrowing visitation, partly because it struck almost everyone at the same time, leaving no one to tend to the victims. Because of European diseases, the population of Native Americans decreased at a high speed, at one time with a mortality of 90 percent. It is no wonder that the invasion of North America has been called “the greatest demographic disaster in the history of the world.” 1.5 The English Reformation (1534) The Renaissance (1300–1650) began in Italy in the 14th century, and soon spread all through Western Europe, beginning with the end of the Middle Ages (476–1453) and the commencement of modern civilization. With the Renaissance came advances in the arts, government, philosophy, and science. The arts ceased to be primarily religious, concerned with the heavenly world. Artists and their patrons began to display a growing interest in looking at life from a secular perspective. The most important music was now heard outside rather than inside the churches, and the great builders of the age now more frequently constructed palaces and town halls than cathedrals and monasteries. Just as philosophers began to emphasize the pagan Greek maxim “man is the measure of all things,” so did sculptors begin to portray the human form larger than life, dominating its surroundings. Painters started to depict the human face and form more realistically. They painted fewer pictures of eternity, heaven, and angels, and more pictures of the earth and the people on it. Thinkers and philosophers turned more and more from the religious concerns of the middle ages to the study of what was modern and scientific. They speculated, questioned, and argued with authorities and with tradition. The invention of scientific instruments such as the microscope in 1590 and the telescope in 1609 quickly inspired a new spirit of scientific enquiry. After Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) 2
published On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres in 1543,large numbers of educated people finally ceased to believe that the earth was the center of the universe.Man now seemed increasingly capable of understanding and controlling his environment,of shaping his own life,even his destiny.Renewed study of ancient Greek and Hebrew literature inspired a new and critical interest in the Bible and a close scrutiny of its text.The new humanism and the critical spirit of the Renaissance in turn gave impetus to the Reformation; the religious revolution that dominated Western Europe in the 16th century brought the end of medieval Christianity and the rise of Protestantism. During the Middle Ages (476-1453),the Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religion in western Europe.Like other institutions of medieval society,the Catholic Church was a hierarchy.At the top was the Pope in Rome,and under him were the descending ranks of other church officials such as cardinals, archbishops,and bishops.At the bottom of the Catholic hierarchy were parish priests,each serving his own village,as well as monks and nuns living in monasteries and convents.Medieval Popes were weak,and their power felt little in the lives of most Europeans.In the 15th century,as the monarchs of Europe grew more powerful,so too did the Popes.The Catholic Church acquired land throughout Europe and added to its income by collecting tithing from church members.Church officials continued the 13th-century practice of selling "indulgences,"which promised to shorten the tormenting time of the believers in purgatory by supposedly drawing on a"treasury of merit"amassed by the good works of Christ and the saints.By then, the Catholic Church and the Papacy had become enormously powerful but increasingly indifferent to popular religious concerns.Popes and bishops flaunted their wealth,church officials meddled in secular politics, while poorly educated parish priests neglected their pastoral duties.At the same time,popular demands for religious assurance grew increasingly intense.The concern for salvation swelled in response to the disorienting changes sweeping the continent during the 15th and 16th centuries-the widening gulf between rich and poor,the rise in prices,and the colonization of America. Into this climate of heightened spirituality stepped Martin Luther (1483-1546),who advocated the religious movement of Protestantism concurring with the spirit of Renaissance in Europe.Like many contemporaries,Luther was consumed by fears over his eternal fate.Convinced that he was damned.he found no consolation in the Catholic Church.Catholic doctrine taught that a person could be saved by faith in God and by his own good works such as leading a virtuous life,observing the sacraments,making pilgrimages to holy places,and praying to Christ and the saints.Luther was convinced that God did not require fallen humankind to earn salvation.Salvation,he concluded,came by faith alone,the "free gift"of God to undeserving sinners.In 1513,Luther elaborated the idea of"justification by faith alone"and believed that the ability to live a good life would not be the cause of salvation but its consequence.Once men and women believed that they had saving faith,moral behavior was possible.In 1517,Martin Luther became increasingly critical of the Catholic Church as an institution.He posted 95 theses,in which he attacked the Catholic hierarchy for selling salvation in the form of indulgences and expressed the anxieties of so many devout laypeople and their outrage at the church hierarchy's neglect.When the Pope excommunicated him,Luther became more radical,advancing the idea of"the priesthood of all believers." He asserted that the Church and its officials were not infallible;only the Scriptures were without error.Every person should read and interpret the Bible for himself and obtain the power claimed by priests without the necessity of approaching God through the hierarchical church and its clergy. The most influential of Luther's successors was John Calvin (1509-1564),a French lawyer turned theologian.Calvin agreed with Luther that men and women could not merit their salvation.But while Luther's God was a loving deity who extended his mercy to sinful humankind,Calvin conceived of God as an awesome sovereign,omniscient and omnipotent controlling force in human history that would ultimately 3
published On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres in 1543, large numbers of educated people finally ceased to believe that the earth was the center of the universe. Man now seemed increasingly capable of understanding and controlling his environment, of shaping his own life, even his destiny. Renewed study of ancient Greek and Hebrew literature inspired a new and critical interest in the Bible and a close scrutiny of its text. The new humanism and the critical spirit of the Renaissance in turn gave impetus to the Reformation; the religious revolution that dominated Western Europe in the 16th century brought the end of medieval Christianity and the rise of Protestantism. During the Middle Ages (476–1453), the Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religion in western Europe. Like other institutions of medieval society, the Catholic Church was a hierarchy. At the top was the Pope in Rome, and under him were the descending ranks of other church officials such as cardinals, archbishops, and bishops. At the bottom of the Catholic hierarchy were parish priests, each serving his own village, as well as monks and nuns living in monasteries and convents. Medieval Popes were weak, and their power felt little in the lives of most Europeans. In the 15th century, as the monarchs of Europe grew more powerful, so too did the Popes. The Catholic Church acquired land throughout Europe and added to its income by collecting tithing from church members. Church officials continued the 13th–century practice of selling “indulgences,” which promised to shorten the tormenting time of the believers in purgatory by supposedly drawing on a “treasury of merit” amassed by the good works of Christ and the saints. By then, the Catholic Church and the Papacy had become enormously powerful but increasingly indifferent to popular religious concerns. Popes and bishops flaunted their wealth, church officials meddled in secular politics, while poorly educated parish priests neglected their pastoral duties. At the same time, popular demands for religious assurance grew increasingly intense. The concern for salvation swelled in response to the disorienting changes sweeping the continent during the 15th and 16th centuries — the widening gulf between rich and poor, the rise in prices, and the colonization of America. Into this climate of heightened spirituality stepped Martin Luther (1483–1546), who advocated the religious movement of Protestantism concurring with the spirit of Renaissance in Europe. Like many contemporaries, Luther was consumed by fears over his eternal fate. Convinced that he was damned, he found no consolation in the Catholic Church. Catholic doctrine taught that a person could be saved by faith in God and by his own good works such as leading a virtuous life, observing the sacraments, making pilgrimages to holy places, and praying to Christ and the saints. Luther was convinced that God did not require fallen humankind to earn salvation. Salvation, he concluded, came by faith alone, the “free gift” of God to undeserving sinners. In 1513, Luther elaborated the idea of “justification by faith alone” and believed that the ability to live a good life would not be the cause of salvation but its consequence. Once men and women believed that they had saving faith, moral behavior was possible. In 1517, Martin Luther became increasingly critical of the Catholic Church as an institution. He posted 95 theses, in which he attacked the Catholic hierarchy for selling salvation in the form of indulgences and expressed the anxieties of so many devout laypeople and their outrage at the church hierarchy’s neglect. When the Pope excommunicated him, Luther became more radical, advancing the idea of “the priesthood of all believers.” He asserted that the Church and its officials were not infallible; only the Scriptures were without error. Every person should read and interpret the Bible for himself and obtain the power claimed by priests without the necessity of approaching God through the hierarchical church and its clergy. The most influential of Luther’s successors was John Calvin (1509–1564), a French lawyer turned theologian. Calvin agreed with Luther that men and women could not merit their salvation. But while Luther’s God was a loving deity who extended his mercy to sinful humankind, Calvin conceived of God as an awesome sovereign, omniscient and omnipotent controlling force in human history that would ultimately 3
triumph over Satan.To bring about that final victory,Calvin believed,God had selected certain people as his agents for ushering in his heavenly kingdom.These people,the saints or the Elect,had been "predestined" by God for eternal salvation in heaven.Calvin's emphasis on Predestination led him to another distinctively Protestant notion,the doctrine of calling.God expected his Elect to serve the good of society by unrelenting work in a"calling,"or occupation,in the world;in order to know whether a person belonged to the Elect,the person had to strive or behave like a saint.In place of the Catholic belief in the importance of good works, Calvin emphasized the goodness of work itself.In other words,the Catholic Church promoted the idea of buying one's way to heaven through good works whereas Calvin believed that success in attaining self-control and in bringing order into one's own life and entire society was the very revelation that the person might be among the Elect.Calvin called upon Christians to become activists,reshaping society and government to conform to God's laws laid down in the Bible.He wanted all of Europe to become like Geneva,the Swiss city that he had converted into a holy commonwealth where the Elect regulated the behavior and morals of everyone else. While the Reformation went forward in Europe,King Henry VIlI (1491-1547)of England was starving for a goal more modest than those of Luther and Calvin.He wanted only to produce a male heir to carry on the Tudor dynasty.When his wife,Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536),gave birth to a daughter,Mary Tudor (1516-1558),Henry decided to do something less modest.He set out to get his marriage with Catherine annulled by the Pope.Unfortunately,Rome was in the hands of the Spanish Emperor,Catherine's nephew,and the Pope dared do nothing to offend him.Out of the deadlock grew the English Reformation.At that time,there were popular grievances against the Roman Church in England:the immunity of the clergy from the king's justice,the vast expense of Papal taxation,the ostentatiously luxurious lives of many of the higher clergy,and the ignorance and vice common among ordinary priests and monks.Besides,leaders of Church opinion in England had themselves been clamoring for reform,and there was nothing heretical in demanding an overhaul of the financial and legal relations between the Church and state.When it soon became obvious that the Pope was merely dragging out the divorce negotiations in the hope that he could somehow avoid quarrelling either with Henry or the Spanish Emperor,Henry went ahead with the divorce and married his mistress,Anne Boleyn(1504-1536).In 1534,Henry VIlI widened his breach with Rome by establishing the Anglican Church,making himself,not the Pope,the head of the Church of England.When his new marriage produced only one daughter,Elizabeth Tudor(1533-1603),Henry had Boleyn beheaded on a trumped-up charge of treason in 1536.In 1537,Henry's third wife did give him a son,Edward Tudor (1537-1553),but died in doing so. When Henry VIlI got his divorce and the Roman Church's assets in England,he did not proceed with the reformation.The king and the parliament wanted the old Catholic faith under new Anglican rule.They killed some Protestants who attacked the faith,and killed some Catholics who attacked the new rule.When Henry died in 1547,England's Protestants gained ground during the six-year reign of Edward VI,but then found themselves persecuted when Edward's Catholic half-sister,Mary I,became queen in 1553. Frantically persecuting the Protestants,Queen Mary was to go down to history as Bloody Mary.She married Philip II(1528-1598)of Spain and restored Papal authority in England.Her Spanish marriage involved England in a Spanish war with France,in which,the port in northern France overlooking the narrowest point of the English Channel,was lost after being in English hands for 300 years.In 1558,Mary roused passionate opposition at home and died a bitter,disappointed woman.After her death,Elizabeth Tudor took the throne of England.Proclaiming herself the defender of Protestantism,Elizabeth I was no radical Calvinist although some of her subjects clamored for the English Church to purge itself of bishops, elaborate ceremonies,and other Roman Catholic tint.An exceptionally talented and intelligent young 4
triumph over Satan. To bring about that final victory, Calvin believed, God had selected certain people as his agents for ushering in his heavenly kingdom. These people, the saints or the Elect, had been “predestined” by God for eternal salvation in heaven. Calvin’s emphasis on Predestination led him to another distinctively Protestant notion, the doctrine of calling. God expected his Elect to serve the good of society by unrelenting work in a “calling,” or occupation, in the world; in order to know whether a person belonged to the Elect, the person had to strive or behave like a saint. In place of the Catholic belief in the importance of good works, Calvin emphasized the goodness of work itself. In other words, the Catholic Church promoted the idea of buying one’s way to heaven through good works whereas Calvin believed that success in attaining self–control and in bringing order into one’s own life and entire society was the very revelation that the person might be among the Elect. Calvin called upon Christians to become activists, reshaping society and government to conform to God’s laws laid down in the Bible. He wanted all of Europe to become like Geneva, the Swiss city that he had converted into a holy commonwealth where the Elect regulated the behavior and morals of everyone else. While the Reformation went forward in Europe, King Henry VIII (1491–1547) of England was starving for a goal more modest than those of Luther and Calvin. He wanted only to produce a male heir to carry on the Tudor dynasty. When his wife, Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536), gave birth to a daughter, Mary Tudor (1516–1558), Henry decided to do something less modest. He set out to get his marriage with Catherine annulled by the Pope. Unfortunately, Rome was in the hands of the Spanish Emperor, Catherine’s nephew, and the Pope dared do nothing to offend him. Out of the deadlock grew the English Reformation. At that time, there were popular grievances against the Roman Church in England: the immunity of the clergy from the king’s justice, the vast expense of Papal taxation, the ostentatiously luxurious lives of many of the higher clergy, and the ignorance and vice common among ordinary priests and monks. Besides, leaders of Church opinion in England had themselves been clamoring for reform, and there was nothing heretical in demanding an overhaul of the financial and legal relations between the Church and state. When it soon became obvious that the Pope was merely dragging out the divorce negotiations in the hope that he could somehow avoid quarrelling either with Henry or the Spanish Emperor, Henry went ahead with the divorce and married his mistress, Anne Boleyn (1504–1536). In 1534, Henry VIII widened his breach with Rome by establishing the Anglican Church, making himself, not the Pope, the head of the Church of England. When his new marriage produced only one daughter, Elizabeth Tudor (1533–1603), Henry had Boleyn beheaded on a trumped–up charge of treason in 1536. In 1537, Henry’s third wife did give him a son, Edward Tudor (1537–1553), but died in doing so. When Henry VIII got his divorce and the Roman Church’s assets in England, he did not proceed with the reformation. The king and the parliament wanted the old Catholic faith under new Anglican rule. They killed some Protestants who attacked the faith, and killed some Catholics who attacked the new rule. When Henry died in 1547, England’s Protestants gained ground during the six–year reign of Edward VI, but then found themselves persecuted when Edward’s Catholic half–sister, Mary I, became queen in 1553. Frantically persecuting the Protestants, Queen Mary was to go down to history as Bloody Mary. She married Philip II (1528–1598) of Spain and restored Papal authority in England. Her Spanish marriage involved England in a Spanish war with France, in which, the port in northern France overlooking the narrowest point of the English Channel, was lost after being in English hands for 300 years. In 1558, Mary roused passionate opposition at home and died a bitter, disappointed woman. After her death, Elizabeth Tudor took the throne of England. Proclaiming herself the defender of Protestantism, Elizabeth I was no radical Calvinist although some of her subjects clamored for the English Church to purge itself of bishops, elaborate ceremonies, and other Roman Catholic tint. An exceptionally talented and intelligent young 4
woman,Queen Elizabeth was autocratic,eccentric,and entirely self-confident,with the sharpest tongue in the kingdom.It was under her that Great Britain rejuvenated economically and politically and commenced its official efforts of exploring America. 第一章发现新大陆 1.2发现美洲（1492) 公元十世纪，当北欧探险家到达北美洲时，欧洲人向外部探险的动力便产生了。然而， 他们在北美的探险最终没能持续下去。自1096年以后，基督教发动了一系列十字军东征试 图使巴勒斯坦摆脱伊斯兰教的控制时，欧洲人的注意力也便随之转向了东方。于是，欧洲与 中东地区的贸易活动开始繁荣起来，并给欧洲各国带来了丝绸和香料。13世纪时，西方最 负盛名的旅行家马可·波罗(Marco Polo,1254年一1324年)与其他商人一道，不远万里， 爬山涉水，穿过丝绸之路，来到亚洲东部，直接从中国人手中购买丝绸和香料。到14世纪 时，意大利商人通过丝绸和香料贸易已经赚了一大笔财富，并且用一部分贸易所得来资助文 艺复兴运动(1300一1650)和海外扩张活动。15世纪中期，欧洲经济经历了又一次的经济 繁荣和人口增长。为了争夺商业优势，新兴的集权制欧洲国家把他们的势力投向了海外，而 改进了的航海技术也使欧洲的海外扩张成为可能。当时，欧洲造船匠人已经把阿拉伯人的三 角帆装备到沉重的货物船上，同时制造了一种轻便的帆船，这种船不仅灵活机动，而且可以 在风暴频仍的大西洋上航行。此外，指南针和罗盘日益广泛的使用，使得水手可以在海上测 量他们的方位。在航海家提高“航海革命技术的同时，文艺复兴学者也在积极修正古代的地 理数据，制作了更为精确的地图。天文学上的新发现和人们对阿拉伯数学的熟练使用也帮助 欧洲人获得了对地球更加丰富和敏锐的认识。 在新兴的欧洲集权国家中，葡萄牙最早产生了探索新世界的愿望。葡萄牙人虽然刚把伊 斯兰教赶出葡萄牙，但他们反对穆斯林的热情不但没有减弱，反而刺激了他们想开发海外市 场的欲望。1488年，葡萄牙人巴·缪·迪亚士(Bartholmeu Dias,约1450一1500)到达非洲南 端的好望角，开辟了与印度直接贸易的航线。1498年，瓦斯科达伽马(Vasco da Gama, 1469一1524)带领着一支葡萄牙舰队绕过好望角，并抵达印度。在后来的一个多世纪，葡萄 牙人一直在印度洋地区和后来发展成为现代印度尼西亚的东印度群岛有着重要影响。不过， 与这一点相比，影响更为深远的是，葡萄牙人把非洲黑人带到了欧洲，并从黑人奴隶贸易中 获得了巨额利润。自古代的希腊和罗马时代以来，欧洲人就一直使用奴隶。但是，葡萄牙人 开始他们的非洲航程以后，欧洲的奴隶制开始变得更加残酷无情。葡萄牙人在大西洋地区和 地中海诸岛上开辟了大面积的剥削奴隶劳动的种植园，种族歧视成了奴隶制最明白无误的基 础。在欧洲人眼里，非洲人的黑皮肤和他们的奇特宗教早就决定了他们低人一等的身份。随 着这种族歧视观念的深入，欧洲人轻而易举就可以为他们的黑人奴隶制找到合适的理由。由 于这一奴隶制的受害者身体上有明显的烙印，文化上又与欧洲人迥异，所以奴隶们这种受人 欺凌、遭人鄙视的地位也就变成了一种代代相传的东西。 克里斯托弗·哥伦布(Christopher Columbus,1451一l506)是一个传奇式的矛盾人物，他 5
woman, Queen Elizabeth was autocratic, eccentric, and entirely self–confident, with the sharpest tongue in the kingdom. It was under her that Great Britain rejuvenated economically and politically and commenced its official efforts of exploring America. 第一章 发现新大陆 1.2 发现美洲（1492） 公元十世纪，当北欧探险家到达北美洲时，欧洲人向外部探险的动力便产生了。然而， 他们在北美的探险最终没能持续下去。自 1096 年以后，基督教发动了一系列十字军东征试 图使巴勒斯坦摆脱伊斯兰教的控制时，欧洲人的注意力也便随之转向了东方。于是，欧洲与 中东地区的贸易活动开始繁荣起来，并给欧洲各国带来了丝绸和香料。13 世纪时，西方最 负盛名的旅行家马可·波罗（Marco Polo，1254 年—1324 年）与其他商人一道，不远万里， 爬山涉水，穿过丝绸之路，来到亚洲东部，直接从中国人手中购买丝绸和香料。到 14 世纪 时，意大利商人通过丝绸和香料贸易已经赚了一大笔财富，并且用一部分贸易所得来资助文 艺复兴运动（1300—1650）和海外扩张活动。15 世纪中期，欧洲经济经历了又一次的经济 繁荣和人口增长。为了争夺商业优势，新兴的集权制欧洲国家把他们的势力投向了海外，而 改进了的航海技术也使欧洲的海外扩张成为可能。当时，欧洲造船匠人已经把阿拉伯人的三 角帆装备到沉重的货物船上，同时制造了一种轻便的帆船，这种船不仅灵活机动，而且可以 在风暴频仍的大西洋上航行。此外，指南针和罗盘日益广泛的使用，使得水手可以在海上测 量他们的方位。在航海家提高“航海革命”技术的同时，文艺复兴学者也在积极修正古代的地 理数据，制作了更为精确的地图。天文学上的新发现和人们对阿拉伯数学的熟练使用也帮助 欧洲人获得了对地球更加丰富和敏锐的认识。 在新兴的欧洲集权国家中，葡萄牙最早产生了探索新世界的愿望。葡萄牙人虽然刚把伊 斯兰教赶出葡萄牙，但他们反对穆斯林的热情不但没有减弱，反而刺激了他们想开发海外市 场的欲望。1488 年，葡萄牙人巴·缪·迪亚士（Bartholmeu Dias，约 1450—1500）到达非洲南 端的好望角，开辟了与印度直接贸易的航线。1498 年，瓦斯科·达·伽马（Vasco da Gama， 1469—1524）带领着一支葡萄牙舰队绕过好望角，并抵达印度。在后来的一个多世纪，葡萄 牙人一直在印度洋地区和后来发展成为现代印度尼西亚的东印度群岛有着重要影响。不过， 与这一点相比，影响更为深远的是，葡萄牙人把非洲黑人带到了欧洲，并从黑人奴隶贸易中 获得了巨额利润。自古代的希腊和罗马时代以来，欧洲人就一直使用奴隶。但是，葡萄牙人 开始他们的非洲航程以后，欧洲的奴隶制开始变得更加残酷无情。葡萄牙人在大西洋地区和 地中海诸岛上开辟了大面积的剥削奴隶劳动的种植园，种族歧视成了奴隶制最明白无误的基 础。在欧洲人眼里，非洲人的黑皮肤和他们的奇特宗教早就决定了他们低人一等的身份。随 着这种族歧视观念的深入，欧洲人轻而易举就可以为他们的黑人奴隶制找到合适的理由。由 于这一奴隶制的受害者身体上有明显的烙印，文化上又与欧洲人迥异，所以奴隶们这种受人 欺凌、遭人鄙视的地位也就变成了一种代代相传的东西。 克里斯托弗·哥伦布（Christopher Columbus，1451—1506）是一个传奇式的矛盾人物，他 5