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上海交通大学：公共管理类《专业英语》课程教学资源（阅读材料）smart city 分类总结法

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Journal of Urban Technology,2015 Routledge VoL.22,No.1,3-21,http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2014.942092 Tayior b Francis Group Smart Cities:Definitions,Dimensions,Performance,and Initiatives Vito Albino,Umberto Berardi and Rosa Maria Dangelico ABSTRACT As the term "smart city"gains wider and wider currency,there is still con- fusion about what a smart city is,especially since several similar terms are often used interchangeably.This paper aims to clarify the meaning of the word "smart"in the 102 context of cities through an approach based on an in-depth literature review of relevant studies as well as official documents of international institutions.It also identifies the 1sn3nV main dimensions and elements characterizing a smart city.The different metrics of urban smartness are reviewed to show the need for a shared definition of what constitutes 8 a smart city,what are its features,and how it performs in comparison to traditional cities. :10 Furthermore,performance measures and initiatives in a few smart cities are identified. KEYWORDS smart city;indicators;sustainability;urban development Introduction In the last two decades,the concept of"smart city"has become more and more popular in scientific literature and international policies.To understand this concept it is important to recognize why cities are considered key elements for the future.Cities play a prime role in social and economic aspects worldwide, and have a huge impact on the environment(Mori and Christodoulou,2012). According to the United Nations Population Fund,2008 marked the year when more than 50 percent of all people,3.3 billion,lived in urban areas,a figure 五 expected to rise to 70 percent by 2050(UN,2008).In Europe,75 percent of the apeojumo population already lives in urban areas and the number is expected to reach 80 percent by 2020.The importance of urban areas as a global phenomenon is con- firmed by the diffusion of megacities of more than 20 million people in Asia, Latin America,and Africa (UN,2008).As a result,nowadays most resources are consumed in cities worldwide,contributing to their economic importance,but also to their poor environmental performance.Cities consume between 60 percent and 80 percent of energy worldwide and are responsible for large shares of GHG emissions(UN,2008).However,the lower the urban density,the more energy is consumed for electricity and transportation,as proved by the fact that COz emissions per capita drop with the increase of urban areas density (Hammer et al.,2011). Corresponding Address:Umberto Berardi,Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science, Ryerson Universtiy,325 Church Street,Toronto,Canada.Email:uberardi@ryerson.ca C2015 The Society of Urban Technology

Smart Cities: Definitions, Dimensions, Performance, and Initiatives Vito Albino, Umberto Berardi and Rosa Maria Dangelico ABSTRACT As the term “smart city” gains wider and wider currency, there is still confusion about what a smart city is, especially since several similar terms are often used interchangeably. This paper aims to clarify the meaning of the word “smart” in the context of cities through an approach based on an in-depth literature review of relevant studies as well as official documents of international institutions. It also identifies the main dimensions and elements characterizing a smart city. The different metrics of urban smartness are reviewed to show the need for a shared definition of what constitutes a smart city, what are its features, and how it performs in comparison to traditional cities. Furthermore, performance measures and initiatives in a few smart cities are identified. KEYWORDS smart city; indicators; sustainability; urban development Introduction In the last two decades, the concept of “smart city” has become more and more popular in scientific literature and international policies. To understand this concept it is important to recognize why cities are considered key elements for the future. Cities play a prime role in social and economic aspects worldwide, and have a huge impact on the environment (Mori and Christodoulou, 2012). According to the United Nations Population Fund, 2008 marked the year when more than 50 percent of all people, 3.3 billion, lived in urban areas, a figure expected to rise to 70 percent by 2050 (UN, 2008). In Europe, 75 percent of the population already lives in urban areas and the number is expected to reach 80 percent by 2020. The importance of urban areas as a global phenomenon is con- firmed by the diffusion of megacities of more than 20 million people in Asia, Latin America, and Africa (UN, 2008). As a result, nowadays most resources are consumed in cities worldwide, contributing to their economic importance, but also to their poor environmental performance. Cities consume between 60 percent and 80 percent of energy worldwide and are responsible for large shares of GHG emissions (UN, 2008). However, the lower the urban density, the more energy is consumed for electricity and transportation, as proved by the fact that CO2 emissions per capita drop with the increase of urban areas density (Hammer et al., 2011). Corresponding Address: Umberto Berardi, Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science, Ryerson Universtiy, 325 Church Street, Toronto, Canada. Email: uberardi@ryerson.ca Journal of Urban Technology, 2015 Vol. 22, No. 1, 3–21, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2014.942092 # 2015 The Society of Urban Technology Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017

4 Journal of Urban Technology The metabolism of cities generally consists of the input of goods and the output of waste with consistent negative externalities,which amplify social and economic problems.Cities rely on too many external resources and,as a matter of fact,they are(and probably will always be)consumers of resources.Promoting sustainability has been interpreted through the promotion of natural capital stocks.Other,more recent,interpretations of urban sustainability have promoted a more anthropocentric approach,according to which cities should respond to people's needs through sustainable solutions for social and economic aspects Turcu,2013;Berardi,2013a;2013b). The current scenario requires cities to find ways to manage new challenges. Cities worldwide have started to look for solutions which enable transportation linkages,mixed land uses,and high-quality urban services with long-term posi- tive effects on the economy.For instance,high-quality and more efficient public transport that responds to economic needs and connects labor with employment 1snany is considered a key element for city growth.Many of the new approaches related to urban services have been based on harnessing technologies,including ICT, helping to create what some call "smart cities." A The concept of the smart city is far from being limited to the application of technologies to cities.In fact,the use of the term is proliferating in many sectors with no agreed upon definitions.This has led to confusion among urban policy makers,hoping to institute policies that will make their cities "smart." This paper seeks to advance state-of-the-art knowledge on what a smart city is,what its key dimensions are,and how its performance can be evaluated.It is based on a review of the literature,including peer reviewed papers published after 2008.In particular,it is structured as follows.First,the main definitions of "smart city"are reviewed,highlighting the different meanings given to this concept and the several perspectives through which it has been studied;next,it analyzes the key dimensions of a smart city;then it focuses on the measures of per- formance of a smart city,reports on the experiences of so called,smart cities; finally closing with a discussion of the main findings of the study. 名 apeojumo Definitions of Smart Cities Many definitions of smart cities exist.A range of conceptual variants is often obtained by replacing"smart"with alternative adjectives,for example,"intelli- gent"or "digital".The label "smart city"is a fuzzy concept and is used in ways that are not always consistent.There is neither a single template of framing a smart city,nor a one-size-fits-all definition of it(O'Grady and O'Hare,2012). The term was first used in the 1990s.At that time,the focus was on the signifi- cance of new ICT with regard to modern infrastructures within cities.The Califor- nia Institute for Smart Communities was among the first to focus on how communities could become smart and how a city could be designed to implement information technologies (Alawadhi et al.,2012).Some years later,the Center of Governance at the University of Ottawa started criticizing the idea of smart cities as being too technically oriented.In this reading,the smart city should have a strong governance-oriented approach which emphasizes the role of social capital and relations in urban development.However,the "smart city" label diffused in the first years of the new century as an "urban labelling" phenomenon.A few years ago,researchers started asking real smart cities to

The metabolism of cities generally consists of the input of goods and the output of waste with consistent negative externalities, which amplify social and economic problems. Cities rely on too many external resources and, as a matter of fact, they are (and probably will always be) consumers of resources. Promoting sustainability has been interpreted through the promotion of natural capital stocks. Other, more recent, interpretations of urban sustainability have promoted a more anthropocentric approach, according to which cities should respond to people’s needs through sustainable solutions for social and economic aspects (Turcu, 2013; Berardi, 2013a; 2013b). The current scenario requires cities to find ways to manage new challenges. Cities worldwide have started to look for solutions which enable transportation linkages, mixed land uses, and high-quality urban services with long-term positive effects on the economy. For instance, high-quality and more efficient public transport that responds to economic needs and connects labor with employment is considered a key element for city growth. Many of the new approaches related to urban services have been based on harnessing technologies, including ICT, helping to create what some call “smart cities.” The concept of the smart city is far from being limited to the application of technologies to cities. In fact, the use of the term is proliferating in many sectors with no agreed upon definitions. This has led to confusion among urban policy makers, hoping to institute policies that will make their cities “smart.” This paper seeks to advance state-of-the-art knowledge on what a smart city is, what its key dimensions are, and how its performance can be evaluated. It is based on a review of the literature, including peer reviewed papers published after 2008. In particular, it is structured as follows. First, the main definitions of “smart city” are reviewed, highlighting the different meanings given to this concept and the several perspectives through which it has been studied; next, it analyzes the key dimensions of a smart city; then it focuses on the measures of performance of a smart city, reports on the experiences of so called, smart cities; finally closing with a discussion of the main findings of the study. Definitions of Smart Cities Many definitions of smart cities exist. A range of conceptual variants is often obtained by replacing “smart” with alternative adjectives, for example, “intelligent” or “digital”. The label “smart city” is a fuzzy concept and is used in ways that are not always consistent. There is neither a single template of framing a smart city, nor a one-size-fits-all definition of it (O’Grady and O’Hare, 2012). The term was first used in the 1990s. At that time, the focus was on the signifi- cance of new ICT with regard to modern infrastructures within cities. The California Institute for Smart Communities was among the first to focus on how communities could become smart and how a city could be designed to implement information technologies (Alawadhi et al., 2012). Some years later, the Center of Governance at the University of Ottawa started criticizing the idea of smart cities as being too technically oriented. In this reading, the smart city should have a strong governance-oriented approach which emphasizes the role of social capital and relations in urban development. However, the “smart city” label diffused in the first years of the new century as an “urban labelling” phenomenon. A few years ago, researchers started asking real smart cities to 4 Journal of Urban Technology Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017

Smart Cities:Definitions,Dimensions,Performance,and Initiatives 5 stand up and to show the many aspects that are hidden behind a self-declaratory attribution of the label of "smart city"(Hollands,2008). Nam and Pardo(2011)investigated possible meanings of the term "smart"in the smart city context.In particular,in the marketing language,"smartness"is a more user-friendly term than the more elitist term"intelligent,"which is gener- ally limited to having a quick mind and being responsive to feedback.Other interpretations suggest that "smart"contains the term "intelligent,"because the smartness is realized only when an intelligent system adapts itself to the users' needs. Harrison et al.(2010),in an IBM corporate document,stated that the term "smart city"denotes an "instrumented,interconnected and intelligent city." "Instrumented"refers to the capability of capturing and integrating live real- 102 world data through the use of sensors,meters,appliances,personal devices, and other similar sensors."Interconnected"means the integration of these data n3nV into a computing platform that allows the communication of such information among the various city services."Intelligent"refers to the inclusion of complex analytics,modelling,optimization,and visualization services to make better oper- ational decisions (Harrison et al.,2010). 6:1010 In the urban planning field,the term "smart city"is often treated as an ideo- logical dimension according to which being smarter entails strategic directions. Governments and public agencies at all levels are embracing the notion of smart- ness to distinguish their policies and programs for targeting sustainable develop- ment,economic growth,better quality of life for their citizens,and creating happiness(Ballas,2013). Table 1 reports some of the different definitions and meanings given to the concept of"smart city."However,the table clarifies that the smart city concept is no longer limited to the diffusion of ICT,but it looks at people and community needs.Batty et al.(2012)clarified this aspect stressing that the diffusion of ICT in cities has to improve the way every subsystem operates,with the goal of enhan- cing the quality of life. Nam and Pardo(2011)discussed the difference between the concept of the smart city and other related terms,such as digital,intelligent or ubiquitous city, along with the three categories of technology,people,and community.From the 花o P technology perspective,a smart city is a city with a great presence of ICT applied to critical infrastructure components and services (Washburn et al., 2010).ICT permeate into intelligent-acting products and services,artificial intelli- gence,and thinking machines(Klein and Kaefer,2008).Smart homes and smart buildings are examples of systems equipped with a multitude of mobile terminals and embedded devices as well as connected sensors and actuators(Ghaffarian Hoseini et al.,2013).Hancke et al.(2013)provide an overview of the state of the art sensors used for monitoring physical infrastructure in a smart city and discuss a large number of pertained applications.For example,advanced energy sensing enables more accurate metering needed for the development of urban smart energy grids,whereas mobility sensors improve traffic control schemes.Worldwide research is currently focusing on the wireless sensor network node technology,system miniaturization,intelligent wireless technology, communication and heterogeneous network,network planning and deployment, comprehensive perception and information processing,code resolution service, searching,tracking,and information distribution to make a smart city the exten- sion of a smart space to the entire city scale (Liu and Peng,2013)

stand up and to show the many aspects that are hidden behind a self-declaratory attribution of the label of “smart city” (Hollands, 2008). Nam and Pardo (2011) investigated possible meanings of the term “smart” in the smart city context. In particular, in the marketing language, “smartness” is a more user-friendly term than the more elitist term “intelligent,” which is generally limited to having a quick mind and being responsive to feedback. Other interpretations suggest that “smart” contains the term “intelligent,” because the smartness is realized only when an intelligent system adapts itself to the users’ needs. Harrison et al. (2010), in an IBM corporate document, stated that the term “smart city” denotes an “instrumented, interconnected and intelligent city.” “Instrumented” refers to the capability of capturing and integrating live realworld data through the use of sensors, meters, appliances, personal devices, and other similar sensors. “Interconnected” means the integration of these data into a computing platform that allows the communication of such information among the various city services. “Intelligent” refers to the inclusion of complex analytics, modelling, optimization, and visualization services to make better operational decisions (Harrison et al., 2010). In the urban planning field, the term “smart city” is often treated as an ideological dimension according to which being smarter entails strategic directions. Governments and public agencies at all levels are embracing the notion of smartness to distinguish their policies and programs for targeting sustainable development, economic growth, better quality of life for their citizens, and creating happiness (Ballas, 2013). Table 1 reports some of the different definitions and meanings given to the concept of “smart city.” However, the table clarifies that the smart city concept is no longer limited to the diffusion of ICT, but it looks at people and community needs. Batty et al. (2012) clarified this aspect stressing that the diffusion of ICT in cities has to improve the way every subsystem operates, with the goal of enhancing the quality of life. Nam and Pardo (2011) discussed the difference between the concept of the smart city and other related terms, such as digital, intelligent or ubiquitous city, along with the three categories of technology, people, and community. From the technology perspective, a smart city is a city with a great presence of ICT applied to critical infrastructure components and services (Washburn et al., 2010). ICT permeate into intelligent-acting products and services, artificial intelligence, and thinking machines (Klein and Kaefer, 2008). Smart homes and smart buildings are examples of systems equipped with a multitude of mobile terminals and embedded devices as well as connected sensors and actuators (Ghaffarian Hoseini et al., 2013). Hancke et al. (2013) provide an overview of the state of the art sensors used for monitoring physical infrastructure in a smart city and discuss a large number of pertained applications. For example, advanced energy sensing enables more accurate metering needed for the development of urban smart energy grids, whereas mobility sensors improve traffic control schemes. Worldwide research is currently focusing on the wireless sensor network node technology, system miniaturization, intelligent wireless technology, communication and heterogeneous network, network planning and deployment, comprehensive perception and information processing, code resolution service, searching, tracking, and information distribution to make a smart city the extension of a smart space to the entire city scale (Liu and Peng, 2013). Smart Cities: Definitions, Dimensions, Performance, and Initiatives 5 Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017

6 Journal of Urban Technology Table 1:Definitions of a smart city Definition Source Smart city as a high-tech intensive and advanced city that connects people, Bakici et al.(2012) information and city elements using new technologies in order to create a sustainable,greener city,competitive and innovative commerce,and an increased life quality. Being a smart city means using all available technology and resources in an Barrionuevo et al. intelligent and coordinated manner to develop urban centers that are at (2012) once integrated,habitable,and sustainable. A city is smart when investments in human and social capital and traditional Caragliu et al.(2011) (transport)and modern (ICT)communication infrastructure fuel sustainable economic growth and a high quality of life,with a wise management of natural resources,through participatory governance. 102 Smart cities will take advantage of communications and sensor capabilities Chen(2010) sewn into the cities'infrastructures to optimize electrical,transportation, and other logistical operations supporting daily life,thereby improving 1snany the quality of life for everyone. Two main streams of research ideas:1)smart cities should do everything Cretu(2012) related to governance and economy using new thinking paradigms and 2) smart cities are all about networks of sensors,smart devices,real-time data,and ICT integration in every aspect of human life. Smart community-a community which makes a conscious decision to Eger(2009) aggressively deploy technology as a catalyst to solving its social and business needs-will undoubtedly focus on building its high-speed broadband infrastructures,but the real opportunity is in rebuilding and renewing a sense of place,and in the process a sense of civic pride.[... Smart communities are not,at their core,exercises in the deployment and use of technology,but in the promotion of economic development,job growth,and an increased quality of life.In other words,technological propagation of smart communities isn't an end in itself,but only a means to reinventing cities for a new economy and society with clear and compelling community benefit. A smart city is based on intelligent exchanges of information that flow Gartner(2011) between its many different subsystems.This flow of information is analyzed and translated into citizen and commercial services.The city will act on this information flow to make its wider ecosystem more resource- 含 efficient and sustainable.The information exchange is based on a smart governance operating framework designed to make cities sustainable. apeojuM A city well performing in a forward-looking way in economy,people, Giffinger et al.(2007） governance,mobility,environment,and living,built on the smart combination of endowments and activities of self-decisive,independent and aware citizens.Smart city generally refers to the search and identification of intelligent solutions which allow modern cities to enhance the quality of the services provided to citizens. A smart city,according to ICLEI,is a city that is prepared to provide Guan(2012) conditions for a healthy and happy community under the challenging conditions that global,environmental,economic and social trends may bring A city that monitors and integrates conditions of all of its critical Hall(2000) infrastructures,including roads,bridges,tunnels,rails,subways,airports, seaports,communications,water,power,even major buildings,can better optimize its resources,plan its preventive maintenance activities,and monitor security aspects while maximizing services to its citizens. A city connecting the physical infrastructure,the IT infrastructure,the social Harrison et al.(2010) infrastructure,and the business infrastructure to leverage the collective intelligence of the city. (Continued)

Table 1: Definitions of a smart city Definition Source Smart city as a high-tech intensive and advanced city that connects people, information and city elements using new technologies in order to create a sustainable, greener city, competitive and innovative commerce, and an increased life quality. Bakıcı et al. (2012) Being a smart city means using all available technology and resources in an intelligent and coordinated manner to develop urban centers that are at once integrated, habitable, and sustainable. Barrionuevo et al. (2012) A city is smart when investments in human and social capital and traditional (transport) and modern (ICT) communication infrastructure fuel sustainable economic growth and a high quality of life, with a wise management of natural resources, through participatory governance. Caragliu et al. (2011) Smart cities will take advantage of communications and sensor capabilities sewn into the cities’ infrastructures to optimize electrical, transportation, and other logistical operations supporting daily life, thereby improving the quality of life for everyone. Chen (2010) Two main streams of research ideas: 1) smart cities should do everything related to governance and economy using new thinking paradigms and 2) smart cities are all about networks of sensors, smart devices, real-time data, and ICT integration in every aspect of human life. Cretu (2012) Smart community – a community which makes a conscious decision to aggressively deploy technology as a catalyst to solving its social and business needs – will undoubtedly focus on building its high-speed broadband infrastructures, but the real opportunity is in rebuilding and renewing a sense of place, and in the process a sense of civic pride. [ ... ] Smart communities are not, at their core, exercises in the deployment and use of technology, but in the promotion of economic development, job growth, and an increased quality of life. In other words, technological propagation of smart communities isn’t an end in itself, but only a means to reinventing cities for a new economy and society with clear and compelling community benefit. Eger (2009) A smart city is based on intelligent exchanges of information that flow between its many different subsystems. This flow of information is analyzed and translated into citizen and commercial services. The city will act on this information flow to make its wider ecosystem more resourceefficient and sustainable. The information exchange is based on a smart governance operating framework designed to make cities sustainable. Gartner (2011) A city well performing in a forward-looking way in economy, people, governance, mobility, environment, and living, built on the smart combination of endowments and activities of self-decisive, independent and aware citizens. Smart city generally refers to the search and identification of intelligent solutions which allow modern cities to enhance the quality of the services provided to citizens. Giffinger et al. (2007) A smart city, according to ICLEI, is a city that is prepared to provide conditions for a healthy and happy community under the challenging conditions that global, environmental, economic and social trends may bring. Guan (2012) A city that monitors and integrates conditions of all of its critical infrastructures, including roads, bridges, tunnels, rails, subways, airports, seaports, communications, water, power, even major buildings, can better optimize its resources, plan its preventive maintenance activities, and monitor security aspects while maximizing services to its citizens. Hall (2000) A city connecting the physical infrastructure, the IT infrastructure, the social infrastructure, and the business infrastructure to leverage the collective intelligence of the city. Harrison et al. (2010) (Continued) 6 Journal of Urban Technology Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017

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