What was the approximate service temperature at the time of failure? Did high or low temperature contribute to failure? Were there temperature excursions? Did wear contribute to failure? Did corrosion contribute to failure? What was the type of corrosion? Was the proper material used? Is a better material required? Was the cross section adequate for the type of service? Were the stresses too high? Was uile mechanical properties of the material acceptable in accordance with specifications? Was the quality of the material acceptable in accordance with specifications? Was the component that failed properly heat treated? Was the component that failed properly fabricated? Was the component properly assembled or installed? Was the component repaired during service and, if so, was the repair correctly performed? Was the component properly"run in"? Was the component properly maintained and properly lubricated Was failure related to abuse in service? Can the design of the component be improved to prevent similar failures? Was the failure primary, or was it damaged by failure of another part? Are failures likely to occur in similar components now in service, and what can be done to prevent their failure? In general, the answers to these questions will be derived from a combination of records and the examinations and tests previously outlined in this article. However, the cause or causes of failure cannot always be determined with certainty. In this instance, the investigation should determine the most probable cause or causes of failure, distinguishing findings based on demonstrated facts from conclusions based on conjecture In most cases, the conclusion should be on the first page, closely followed by recommendations Failure Analysis Report Preparation and Writing. A failure analysis report is the summation of all of the individual tests and analyses performed during the course of an investigation. The report coalesces the various results and presents them in a concise and logical format. It should be written to describe the particulars of the subject being studied, convey pertinent information gathered from testing and analysis, and logically and accurately interpret and explain data and results. A report allows the reader to follow the investigator,s thought processes during the analysis and documents and explains the course the investigation followed. The author may be the sole investigator, a coinvestigator, a contributor, or other person designated as the primary point of contact. Basically, the body of the report tells the story of the investigation, explaining why certain tasks were erformed, in what order, what the results were and their interpretations, and answers the questions originally posed by the customer at the onset of the study brevity is important, but not at the expense of completeness and clarity. Reports should be written with the target audience in mind. For example, are the intended readers technically oriented? A report intended for engineers and scientists would likely differ from a report submitted to marketing or finance personnel. Frequently, readers will scan only one or two sections of the report, usually either the abstract, summary, or conclusions section, prior to deciding whether to read the entire report Consequently, these sections must adequately convey the scope and findings of the study Adequate preparation is required prior to actually writing a report. An author must compile all of the information generated during an investigation and review the data. Many investigators find it is helpful to assemble all pertinent data, such as photographs, spectra, and mechanical and physical test results, and lay the information out in front of them sequentially, corresponding to the order the tests were actually performed Glean the useful data from the redundant or superfluous. Next, review some basic questions to decide exactly what information the report should convey. What did the customer request? Frequently customers ask for something, but it is the responsibility of the investigator to discern what they really want. Which tests and analyses were performed? Constraints may be placed upon the investigation--generally, time or cost. If an investigation is requested, but limited by deadlines or funding, the analyst must decide which tests and procedures will furnish the most useful information in the most timely fashion without exceeding any preestablished budget. If certain tests or analyses were excluded, whether for time, budgetary, or other reasons it is often beneficial to explain why they were not performed Certain failures require minimal amounts of testing and analysis; others involve multiple disciplines and extensive investigations. A series of questions Thefileisdownloadedfromwww.bzfxw.com
· What was the approximate service temperature at the time of failure? · Did high or low temperature contribute to failure? Were there temperature excursions? · Did wear contribute to failure? · Did corrosion contribute to failure? What was the type of corrosion? · Was the proper material used? Is a better material required? · Was the cross section adequate for the type of service? Were the stresses too high? · Was the quality of the material acceptable in accordance with specifications? · Were the mechanical properties of the material acceptable in accordance with specifications? · Was the component that failed properly heat treated? · Was the component that failed properly fabricated? · Was the component properly assembled or installed? · Was the component repaired during service and, if so, was the repair correctly performed? · Was the component properly “run in”? · Was the component properly maintained and properly lubricated? · Was failure related to abuse in service? · Can the design of the component be improved to prevent similar failures? · Was the failure primary, or was it damaged by failure of another part? · Are failures likely to occur in similar components now in service, and what can be done to prevent their failure? In general, the answers to these questions will be derived from a combination of records and the examinations and tests previously outlined in this article. However, the cause or causes of failure cannot always be determined with certainty. In this instance, the investigation should determine the most probable cause or causes of failure, distinguishing findings based on demonstrated facts from conclusions based on conjecture. In most cases, the conclusion should be on the first page, closely followed by recommendations. Failure Analysis Report Preparation and Writing. A failure analysis report is the summation of all of the individual tests and analyses performed during the course of an investigation. The report coalesces the various results and presents them in a concise and logical format. It should be written to describe the particulars of the subject being studied, convey pertinent information gathered from testing and analysis, and logically and accurately interpret and explain data and results. A report allows the reader to follow the investigator's thought processes during the analysis and documents and explains the course the investigation followed. The author may be the sole investigator, a coinvestigator, a contributor, or other person designated as the primary point of contact. Basically, the body of the report tells the story of the investigation, explaining why certain tasks were performed, in what order, what the results were and their interpretations, and answers the questions originally posed by the customer at the onset of the study. Brevity is important, but not at the expense of completeness and clarity. Reports should be written with the target audience in mind. For example, are the intended readers technically oriented? A report intended for engineers and scientists would likely differ from a report submitted to marketing or finance personnel. Frequently, readers will scan only one or two sections of the report, usually either the abstract, summary, or conclusions section, prior to deciding whether to read the entire report. Consequently, these sections must adequately convey the scope and findings of the study. Adequate preparation is required prior to actually writing a report. An author must compile all of the information generated during an investigation and review the data. Many investigators find it is helpful to assemble all pertinent data, such as photographs, spectra, and mechanical and physical test results, and lay the information out in front of them sequentially, corresponding to the order the tests were actually performed. Glean the useful data from the redundant or superfluous. Next, review some basic questions to decide exactly what information the report should convey. What did the customer request? Frequently customers ask for something, but it is the responsibility of the investigator to discern what they really want. Which tests and analyses were performed? Constraints may be placed upon the investigation—generally, time or cost. If an investigation is requested, but limited by deadlines or funding, the analyst must decide which tests and procedures will furnish the most useful information in the most timely fashion without exceeding any preestablished budget. If certain tests or analyses were excluded, whether for time, budgetary, or other reasons, it is often beneficial to explain why they were not performed. Certain failures require minimal amounts of testing and analysis; others involve multiple disciplines and extensive investigations. A series of questions, The file is downloaded from www.bzfxw.com
posed prior to writing the final report, help to ensure that the analysis adequately addresses the most important considerations, regardless of whether the investigation is large scale or routine(Ref 2) Has all relevant background information been collected? What was the most likely sequence of failure? For failures involving cracking or fracture, was there a single initiation site, or multiple sites? Was crack initiation surface or subsurface? Was a stress concentrator a factor in cracking? Was the cracking fresh? If not, how long was the crack extant What was the load intensity? Did cyclic, intermittent, or static loading contribute? What was the stress orientation? Was the failure temperature related? If so, what temperatures did the component encounter? Was the failure wear related? Did corrosion contribute to the failure? If so, what type of corrosion? Was an appropriate material used? Should a more suitable material be used? Was it within specification? It is worth remembering that a specified material may still be inadequate Were the mechanical and physical properties of the material adequate? within specification? Was the component properly heat treated? fabricated? assembled and/or installed? run/broken in? lubricated? maintained? Was the component ever repaired? If so, was the repair adequate? Did in-service abuse contribute to the failure? Would improving component design preclude similar failures? How can future failures of comparable components be avoided? It is preferable for the report to list work chronologically, as the tasks were performed. The flow of the report should be from nondestructive to destructive. The results must satisfy the customer's original requirements Were standard procedures followed and documented? Individual companies or organizations usually have guidelines concerning the format and content of technical reports, required signatures, distribution, and so forth Likewise, legal considerations, such as what constitutes a business record and the length of time records and supporting data are retained, should adhere to company policies Technical reports are not prose, but the author can still imbue singularity into the work, while maintaining professionalism and cogency. Although there is no single universally accepted report format, most share common features and are tailored to satisfy the needs of the customer and employing organization. For instance, technical reports have historically been written in the past tense from a third-person perspective. However, more authors are now using first person to describe their analyses. They believe first person instills the reader with a better understanding of the flow of the investigation and helps them understand the thought processes behind the analyses performed. Many experienced analysts prefer to put their conclusions at the beginning of a report, so that the reader understands the pertinence of the information reported. Photographs, figures, charts, and so forth should augment and enhance the textual narrative of the report, not replace it; many experts feel that imbedding such graphics in the body of the report, rather than at the end tends to help the flow of the report. Company procedures and practices may address such issues as voice and format. If no formal company policy exists, there are many organizations that provide standard formats and guidelines in a variety of media The American National Standards Institute(ANSI) can provide hardcopy references and standards for guidance (Ref3) likewise, the Internet World Wide Web can provide excellent on-line reference sites(Ref 4, 5) Elements of the Report. Traditionally, failure analysis reports contain, as a minimum An introduction that includes background information on the subject of the report and restates the work requested and may serve as a written record for verbal work requests A section detailing investigative procedures and results · Conclusions Lengthier reports can comprise
posed prior to writing the final report, help to ensure that the analysis adequately addresses the most important considerations, regardless of whether the investigation is large scale or routine (Ref 2): · Has all relevant background information been collected? · What was the most likely sequence of failure? · For failures involving cracking or fracture, was there a single initiation site, or multiple sites? · Was crack initiation surface or subsurface? · Was a stress concentrator a factor in cracking? · Was the cracking fresh? If not, how long was the crack extant. · What was the load intensity? · Did cyclic, intermittent, or static loading contribute? · What was the stress orientation? · Was the failure temperature related? If so, what temperatures did the component encounter? · Was the failure wear related? · Did corrosion contribute to the failure? If so, what type of corrosion? · Was an appropriate material used? Should a more suitable material be used? Was it within specification? It is worth remembering that a specified material may still be inadequate. · Were the mechanical and physical properties of the material adequate? Within specification? · Was the component properly heat treated? fabricated? assembled and/or installed? run/broken in? lubricated? maintained? · Was the component ever repaired? If so, was the repair adequate? · Did in-service abuse contribute to the failure? · Would improving component design preclude similar failures? · How can future failures of comparable components be avoided? It is preferable for the report to list work chronologically, as the tasks were performed. The flow of the report should be from nondestructive to destructive. The results must satisfy the customer's original requirements. Were standard procedures followed and documented? Individual companies or organizations usually have guidelines concerning the format and content of technical reports, required signatures, distribution, and so forth. Likewise, legal considerations, such as what constitutes a business record and the length of time records and supporting data are retained, should adhere to company policies. Technical reports are not prose, but the author can still imbue singularity into the work, while maintaining professionalism and cogency. Although there is no single universally accepted report format, most share common features and are tailored to satisfy the needs of the customer and employing organization. For instance, technical reports have historically been written in the past tense from a third-person perspective. However, more authors are now using first person to describe their analyses. They believe first person instills the reader with a better understanding of the flow of the investigation and helps them understand the thought processes behind the analyses performed. Many experienced analysts prefer to put their conclusions at the beginning of a report, so that the reader understands the pertinence of the information reported. Photographs, figures, charts, and so forth should augment and enhance the textual narrative of the report, not replace it; many experts feel that imbedding such graphics in the body of the report, rather than at the end, tends to help the flow of the report. Company procedures and practices may address such issues as voice and format. If no formal company policy exists, there are many organizations that provide standard formats and guidelines in a variety of media. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) can provide hardcopy references and standards for guidance (Ref 3). Likewise, the Internet World Wide Web can provide excellent on-line reference sites (Ref 4, 5). Elements of the Report. Traditionally, failure analysis reports contain, as a minimum: · An introduction that includes background information on the subject of the report and restates the work requested and may serve as a written record for verbal work requests · A section detailing investigative procedures and results · Conclusions Lengthier reports can comprise:
A heading An abstract a table of contents An introduction Sections devoted to investigative procedures, results, discussions, conclusions, and recommendations Signature blocks Acknowledgments References Appendic Most reports begin with a heading. The heading may include the company name, department, author, date report number, and title of the report. The title should be in title case and be as descriptive as possible without An abstract is useful to succinctly describe the scope and objectives of the investigation and the findings of the analysis. All information, descriptions, and conclusions stated in an abstract should be expounded upon in the body of the paper. An abstract should be brief, generally between 150 and 500 words. The abstract should not be a complete summary of the paper; instead, it should convey only the salient points of the report(Ref 3) A table of contents should be included if the report contains many pages, typically ten or more. a table of contents sequentially lists the sections of the report and their respective page numbers The background, or foreword, section of the report supplies the reader with pertinent information and helps serve as an introduction. This section of the report should contain as much useful information as possible. Nomenclature of the parts involved Description of the work requested Descriptions of the events surrounding the subject failure Related documentation such as specifications, standards, drawings Manufacturing and service histories Applicable part numbers, materials, loads, and so forth An investigative procedures section details the tests and methods utilized during an analysis. The progression of tests should follow the investigator's test plan. Typically, testing is performed on components sequentially, from nondestructive to destructive. Destructive testing, by its very nature, destroys potential evidence. If litigation is involved, or potentially involved, it is necessary to obtain agreement between all parties as to the scope of the work, and also then to obtain a court order to allow the destructive testing to be performed. This should be addressed and documented. A detailed as-received description is beneficial, complemented with photodocumentation. Photos, figures, charts, and similar visuals should be captioned with an explanatory statement, including applicable scales, units, and so forth. Any cleaning and preparation should be noted The macroscopic features can be described, followed by the microscopic features. Microscopy generally progresses from optical to electronic. Metallographic and chemical analysis methods used during the investigation should be detailed. Equipment utilized to perform the various tests can be stated in this section. Physical and mechanical testing performed should be documented. Mechanical testing can include hardness and tensile testing. Physical testing can include density and electrical conductivity The results section of the paper reports the pertinent data and information obtained from the various tests performed during the investigation. The data are subsequently used in the discussion and conclusions sections, therefore, extemporaneous data should not be included. The results should be presented descriptions, tables, figures, charts, or other graphics. Mathematical and computational procedures and formulaic manipulations and equations should be described textually. If multiple equations are used, each should be numbered sequentially for reference. Testing and data accuracy should be addressed. The appropriate appendix should be referenced concerning error analysis and computational and analytical details The discussion section of the report describes the interpretation and analysis of the findings obtained from the various tests. The most important results should be recapped. Relationships between various properties, facts and findings should be explained. The characteristics of the subject specimens can be compared to those of laboratory-manufactured exemplars; this helps gage the accuracy of the tests and provides valuable reference Thefileisdownloadedfromwww.bzfxw.com
· A heading · An abstract · A table of contents · An introduction · Sections devoted to investigative procedures, results, discussions, conclusions, and recommendations · Signature blocks · Acknowledgments · References · Appendices Most reports begin with a heading. The heading may include the company name, department, author, date, report number, and title of the report. The title should be in title case and be as descriptive as possible without being too verbose. An abstract is useful to succinctly describe the scope and objectives of the investigation and the findings of the analysis. All information, descriptions, and conclusions stated in an abstract should be expounded upon in the body of the paper. An abstract should be brief, generally between 150 and 500 words. The abstract should not be a complete summary of the paper; instead, it should convey only the salient points of the report (Ref 3). A table of contents should be included if the report contains many pages, typically ten or more. A table of contents sequentially lists the sections of the report and their respective page numbers. The background, or foreword, section of the report supplies the reader with pertinent information and helps serve as an introduction. This section of the report should contain as much useful information as possible, including: · Nomenclature of the parts involved · Description of the work requested · Descriptions of the events surrounding the subject failure · Related documentation such as specifications, standards, drawings · Manufacturing and service histories · Applicable part numbers, materials, loads, and so forth An investigative procedures section details the tests and methods utilized during an analysis. The progression of tests should follow the investigator's test plan. Typically, testing is performed on components sequentially, from nondestructive to destructive. Destructive testing, by its very nature, destroys potential evidence. If litigation is involved, or potentially involved, it is necessary to obtain agreement between all parties as to the scope of the work, and also then to obtain a court order to allow the destructive testing to be performed. This should be addressed and documented. A detailed as-received description is beneficial, complemented with photodocumentation. Photos, figures, charts, and similar visuals should be captioned with an explanatory statement, including applicable scales, units, and so forth. Any cleaning and preparation should be noted. The macroscopic features can be described, followed by the microscopic features. Microscopy generally progresses from optical to electronic. Metallographic and chemical analysis methods used during the investigation should be detailed. Equipment utilized to perform the various tests can be stated in this section. Physical and mechanical testing performed should be documented. Mechanical testing can include hardness and tensile testing. Physical testing can include density and electrical conductivity. The results section of the paper reports the pertinent data and information obtained from the various tests performed during the investigation. The data are subsequently used in the discussion and conclusions sections; therefore, extemporaneous data should not be included. The results should be presented using descriptions, tables, figures, charts, or other graphics. Mathematical and computational procedures and formulaic manipulations and equations should be described textually. If multiple equations are used, each should be numbered sequentially for reference. Testing and data accuracy should be addressed. The appropriate appendix should be referenced concerning error analysis and computational and analytical details. The discussion section of the report describes the interpretation and analysis of the findings obtained from the various tests. The most important results should be recapped. Relationships between various properties, facts, and findings should be explained. The characteristics of the subject specimens can be compared to those of laboratory-manufactured exemplars; this helps gage the accuracy of the tests and provides valuable reference The file is downloaded from www.bzfxw.com
information. Plausible explanations relating to failure modes and causes should be addressed The discussion should proceed from specific to general. Any variations in data should be explained. Possibility versus probability of various scenarios should be considered and discussed The conclusions section of a technical report should summarize the most significant results and findings of the estigation and present the most cogent and plausible explanations. It may be necessary to reiterate information discussed in prior sections to bolster any conclusions or theories presented. Conclusions are generally based on facts, but often informed speculation and opinion are required to satisfy customer requirements. State if a conclusion is based on supposition, and describe supporting factual data. As stated previously, frequently the abstract and conclusions sections are the only portions of a report that are read, so they need to be especially concise, accurate, and well written The three main outcomes of a failure analysis are: determining how the subject component failed(e.g overload), establishing why the component failed(e.g, overtorque), and making recommendations to prevent future failures, when applicable and appropriate Recommendations should address, and rectify, the deleterious factors that contributed to the failure. It is worth noting that sometimes recommendations may be costly to implement or unpopular with others in an organization. However, it is essential that the investigator preclude failures, thereby increasing safety, reducing the likelihood of injury, and increasing service life of the given component a signature block is normally required for technical reports. Local company policies generally identify necessary signatories. Signatories titles and contact information should be included, immediately below the appropriate signature. As a minimum, the primary investigator/author should sign the report. Any concurrence editorial signatures should follow the primary signature An acknowledgments, or contributors, section is frequently included in technical papers. Coinvestigators, colleagues, technicians, analysts, and so forth who made contributions during an investigation can be acknowledged for their efforts any work from other authors cited per should be referenced. There are two major formats for citations, or referencing work: the number-identification system and the author-date system. The former ascribes specific numbers to the references, corresponding to entries in a successively numbered list of references. The latter parenthetically cites an author's name and publication dates in the body of the text and corresponds to an entr title, and publication me d reference list. Generally the order of information is the author's name, the article in an alphabetically title, and publication information. Specific formats and examples are discussed at length in various sources, such as the Modern Language Association(MLA) Handbook, 5th edition(1999)and Chicago Manual of style, 14th edition(1993). Since the advent of the Internet, on-line sources are becoming more common. although no standards have as yet been adopted, several present similar formats(Ref 6). Most writing style guides and standards organizations generally agree that an Internet reference should include the authors, a descriptive document title, date, and uniform resource locators (URLs) Appendices should contain computational, factual, and analytical details referenced in the body of the report Error calculations should be placed in the appendix. Multiple appendices should be designated by sequential letters(Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. ) The appendices should contain sufficient information so that the reader can understand and evaluate the results without needing to refer to previous publications glossary of terms used in the report can follow the appendix. Terms and their respective definitions should be in alphabetical order, each on a separate line A final review and edit of the report is always beneficial. Useful considerations when reviewing a report Include Alternative viewpoints and ideas can be addressed if additional people review a report. This must be balanced against the time involved during the editing cycl Always perform spelling and grammar checks Is all the information contained in the report pertinent to the subject investigation? Are the results and conclusions logical and accurate? Have the failure mode and cause been ascertained? Does the report have a logical flow and continuity of results? Are the recommendations plausible? Were all the original questions answered? Were there any contradictory results? If so, retest or explain
information. Plausible explanations relating to failure modes and causes should be addressed. The discussion should proceed from specific to general. Any variations in data should be explained. Possibility versus probability of various scenarios should be considered and discussed. The conclusions section of a technical report should summarize the most significant results and findings of the investigation and present the most cogent and plausible explanations. It may be necessary to reiterate information discussed in prior sections to bolster any conclusions or theories presented. Conclusions are generally based on facts, but often informed speculation and opinion are required to satisfy customer requirements. State if a conclusion is based on supposition, and describe supporting factual data. As stated previously, frequently the abstract and conclusions sections are the only portions of a report that are read, so they need to be especially concise, accurate, and well written. The three main outcomes of a failure analysis are: determining how the subject component failed (e.g., overload), establishing why the component failed (e.g., overtorque), and making recommendations to prevent future failures, when applicable and appropriate. Recommendations should address, and rectify, the deleterious factors that contributed to the failure. It is worth noting that sometimes recommendations may be costly to implement or unpopular with others in an organization. However, it is essential that the investigator preclude failures, thereby increasing safety, reducing the likelihood of injury, and increasing service life of the given component. A signature block is normally required for technical reports. Local company policies generally identify necessary signatories. Signatories' titles and contact information should be included, immediately below the appropriate signature. As a minimum, the primary investigator/author should sign the report. Any concurrence or editorial signatures should follow the primary signature. An acknowledgments, or contributors, section is frequently included in technical papers. Coinvestigators, colleagues, technicians, analysts, and so forth who made contributions during an investigation can be acknowledged for their efforts. Any work from other authors cited in a paper should be referenced. There are two major formats for citations, or referencing work: the number-identification system and the author-date system. The former ascribes specific numbers to the references, corresponding to entries in a successively numbered list of references. The latter parenthetically cites an author's name and publication dates in the body of the text and corresponds to an entry in an alphabetically arranged reference list. Generally, the order of information is: the author's name, the article title, and publication information. Specific formats and examples are discussed at length in various sources, such as the Modern Language Association (MLA) Handbook, 5th edition (1999) and Chicago Manual of Style, 14th edition (1993). Since the advent of the Internet, on-line sources are becoming more common. Although no standards have as yet been adopted, several present similar formats (Ref 6). Most writing style guides and standards organizations generally agree that an Internet reference should include the authors, a descriptive document title, date, and uniform resource locators (URLs). Appendices should contain computational, factual, and analytical details referenced in the body of the report. Error calculations should be placed in the appendix. Multiple appendices should be designated by sequential letters (Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.). The appendices should contain sufficient information so that the reader can understand and evaluate the results without needing to refer to previous publications. A glossary of terms used in the report can follow the appendix. Terms and their respective definitions should be in alphabetical order, each on a separate line. A final review and edit of the report is always beneficial. Useful considerations when reviewing a report include: · Alternative viewpoints and ideas can be addressed if additional people review a report. This must be balanced against the time involved during the editing cycle. · Always perform spelling and grammar checks. · Is all the information contained in the report pertinent to the subject investigation? · Are the results and conclusions logical and accurate? · Have the failure mode and cause been ascertained? · Does the report have a logical flow and continuity of results? · Are the recommendations plausible? · Were all the original questions answered? · Were there any contradictory results? If so, retest or explain
Were proper procedures followed and documented? Was the test plan followed as designed, or was divergence necessary? Were all graphics properly captioned? Were scales included with all photodocumentation? Were units used consistently? Was the equipment used in the investigation documented and in calibration? Is all the information in the report suitable for distribution? Were concerns regarding classified, restricted, or proprietary information addressed? The Audience. Obviously, not every report will require coverage under each of these sections. Lengthy reports should begin with an abstract or executive summary. Because readers of failure analysis reports are often people in purchasing, operations, accounting, management, and even legal staff, the avoidance of technical jargon wherever possible is highly desirable. a glossary of terms may also be helpful. The use of appendices containing detailed calculations, equations, and tables of chemical and metallurgical data can serve to keep the body of the report clear and uncluttered. The use of literature or book references is recommended along with references to pertinent standards such as ASTM, and so forth Customer needs vary. Some may request a formal report, others an abbreviated report or executive summary Not all reports require each section previously mentioned. In certain instances, sections of the report can be combined for better flow and continuity. For example, the results and discussion sections, or the procedures and results portions, can be combined into one section. An internal company report may not require the detail that a potentially litigious investigation might merit. It is worth remembering, however, that even the most innocuous report may potentially be used in litigation. Therefore, semantics and nomenclature should be chosen carefully Potentially inflammatory or insensitive wording should be avoided As an example, the use of the word flaw versus"defect " Not every flaw is a defect, but all defects are flaws(Ref 7) Consult Other Disciplines. When available, take advantage of the resources of other knowledge and experience available to you. This can be someone in your company or even a vendor. An interdisciplinary approach to complex failure analyses of large structures or machines is often warranted. Activities such as nondestructive testing and FEA are usually subject areas in which the failure analyst is not proficient. Working with engineers and specialists in other disciplines can be required to reach the root cause. Most specialty support such as nondestructive testing or FEA analysis can be purchased as a service. However, simple collection of results without a meaningful dialogue of the engineering and metallurgical variables at play in a particular failure may lead to poor results and improper interpretation. Developing a team to solve complex problems can ensure the best possible outcome when the failure requires a broad analysis Follow-Up on Recommendations. The purpose of most industrial failure analysis is to determine the basic or root cause of failure of metal parts. Failures are, at best, a source of irritation and, at worst, a safety hazard, but they are always an economic loss. Therefore, study of the failure should result in carefully formulated recommendations in the report that are aimed at reducing or eliminating similar failures in the future. Such recommendations may involve adding warning labels, changes in design, metallurgy, manufacture, quality control, maintenance, repair practices, and anticipated usage of the product If recommendations are made in the report, they should be reviewed with appropriate personnel after the report has been issued so that the recommendations are not overlooked. There may be valid reasons for not implementing the recommendations, but at least those performing the failure analysis and writing the report will have fulfilled their responsibility References cited in this section 2. G.F. Vander Voort, Conducting the Failure Examination, Met. Eng. Quart, May 1975 3. Scientific and Technical Reports: Elements, Organization, and Design, ANSI/NISO Z39. 18-1995 American National Standards Institute/National Information Standards Organization. 1995 4. S Butts, "Technical Report Writing, National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), Glenn ResearchcEnter1Oct2001,http://tid.grc.nasa.gov Thefileisdownloadedfromwww.bzfxw.com
· Were proper procedures followed and documented? · Was the test plan followed as designed, or was divergence necessary? · Were all graphics properly captioned? Were scales included with all photodocumentation? · Were units used consistently? · Was the equipment used in the investigation documented and in calibration? · Is all the information in the report suitable for distribution? Were concerns regarding classified, restricted, or proprietary information addressed? The Audience. Obviously, not every report will require coverage under each of these sections. Lengthy reports should begin with an abstract or executive summary. Because readers of failure analysis reports are often people in purchasing, operations, accounting, management, and even legal staff, the avoidance of technical jargon wherever possible is highly desirable. A glossary of terms may also be helpful. The use of appendices, containing detailed calculations, equations, and tables of chemical and metallurgical data can serve to keep the body of the report clear and uncluttered. The use of literature or book references is recommended along with references to pertinent standards such as ASTM, and so forth. Customer needs vary. Some may request a formal report, others an abbreviated report or executive summary. Not all reports require each section previously mentioned. In certain instances, sections of the report can be combined for better flow and continuity. For example, the results and discussion sections, or the procedures and results portions, can be combined into one section. An internal company report may not require the detail that a potentially litigious investigation might merit. It is worth remembering, however, that even the most innocuous report may potentially be used in litigation. Therefore, semantics and nomenclature should be chosen carefully. Potentially inflammatory or insensitive wording should be avoided. As an example, the use of the word “flaw” versus “defect.” Not every flaw is a defect, but all defects are flaws (Ref 7). Consult Other Disciplines. When available, take advantage of the resources of other knowledge and experience available to you. This can be someone in your company or even a vendor. An interdisciplinary approach to complex failure analyses of large structures or machines is often warranted. Activities such as nondestructive testing and FEA are usually subject areas in which the failure analyst is not proficient. Working with engineers and specialists in other disciplines can be required to reach the root cause. Most specialty support such as nondestructive testing or FEA analysis can be purchased as a service. However, simple collection of results without a meaningful dialogue of the engineering and metallurgical variables at play in a particular failure may lead to poor results and improper interpretation. Developing a team to solve complex problems can ensure the best possible outcome when the failure requires a broad analysis. Follow-Up on Recommendations. The purpose of most industrial failure analysis is to determine the basic or root cause of failure of metal parts. Failures are, at best, a source of irritation and, at worst, a safety hazard, but they are always an economic loss. Therefore, study of the failure should result in carefully formulated recommendations in the report that are aimed at reducing or eliminating similar failures in the future. Such recommendations may involve adding warning labels, changes in design, metallurgy, manufacture, quality control, maintenance, repair practices, and anticipated usage of the product. If recommendations are made in the report, they should be reviewed with appropriate personnel after the report has been issued so that the recommendations are not overlooked. There may be valid reasons for not implementing the recommendations, but at least those performing the failure analysis and writing the report will have fulfilled their responsibility. References cited in this section 2. G.F. Vander Voort, Conducting the Failure Examination, Met. Eng. Quart., May 1975 3. Scientific and Technical Reports: Elements, Organization, and Design,” ANSI/NISO Z39.18-1995, American National Standards Institute/National Information Standards Organization, 1995 4. S. Butts, “Technical Report Writing,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Glenn Research Center, 1 Oct 2001, http://ltid.grc.nasa.gov The file is downloaded from www.bzfxw.com