Smart Cities:Definitions,Dimensions,Performance,and Initiatives 7 Table 1:Continued Definition Source (Smart)cities as territories with high capacity for learning and innovation, Komninos(2011) which is built-in the creativity of their population,their institutions of knowledge creation,and their digital infrastructure for communication and knowledge management. Smart cities are the result of knowledge-intensive and creative strategies Kourtit and Nijkamp aiming at enhancing the socio-economic,ecological,logistic and (2012) competitive performance of cities.Such smart cities are based on a promising mix of human capital (e.g.skilled labor force),infrastructural capital (e.g.high-tech communication facilities),social capital (e.g.intense and open network linkages)and entrepreneurial capital (e.g.creative and risk-taking business activities). Smart cities have high productivity as they have a relatively high share of Kourtit et al.(2012) 102 highly educated people,knowledge-intensive jobs,output-oriented planning systems,creative activities and sustainability-oriented 1snanv initiatives. Smart city [refers to]a local entity-a district,city,region or small country IDA(2012) -which takes a holistic approach to employ[ing]information technologies with real-time analysis that encourages sustainable economic development. A community of average technology size,interconnected and sustainable, Lazaroiu and Roscia comfortable,attractive and secure. (2012) The application of information and communications technology(ICT)with Lombardi et al.(2012) their effects on human capital/education,social and relational capital,and environmental issues is often indicated by the notion of smart city. A smart city infuses information into its physical infrastructure to improve Nam and Pardo(2011) conveniences,facilitate mobility,add efficiencies,conserve energy, improve the quality of air and water,identify problems and fix them quickly,recover rapidly from disasters,collect data to make better decisions,deploy resources effectively,and share data to enable collaboration across entities and domains. Creative or smart city experiments[...aimed at nurturing a creative Thite (2011) economy through investment in quality of life which in turn attracts knowledge workers to live and work in smart cities.The nexus of competitive advantage has[...shifted to those regions that can generate, 召 retain,and attract the best talent. Smart cities of the future will need sustainable urban development policies Thuzar (2011) apeojuM where all residents,including the poor,can live well and the attraction of the towns and cities is preserved.[...Smart cities are cities that have a high quality of life;those that pursue sustainable economic development through investments in human and social capital,and traditional and modern communications infrastructure (transport and information communication technology);and manage natural resources through participatory policies.Smart cities should also be sustainable,converging economic,social,and environmental goals. A smart city is understood as a certain intellectual ability that addresses Zygiaris(2013) several innovative socio-technical and socio-economic aspects of growth. These aspects lead to smart city conceptions as"green"referring to urban infrastructure for environment protection and reduction of CO2 emission, "interconnected"related to revolution of broadband economy, "intelligent"declaring the capacity to produce added value information from the processing of city's real-time data from sensors and activators, whereas the terms "innovating","knowledge"cities interchangeably refer to the city's ability to raise innovation based on knowledgeable and creative human capital. (Continued)
Table 1: Continued Definition Source (Smart) cities as territories with high capacity for learning and innovation, which is built-in the creativity of their population, their institutions of knowledge creation, and their digital infrastructure for communication and knowledge management. Komninos (2011) Smart cities are the result of knowledge-intensive and creative strategies aiming at enhancing the socio-economic, ecological, logistic and competitive performance of cities. Such smart cities are based on a promising mix of human capital (e.g. skilled labor force), infrastructural capital (e.g. high-tech communication facilities), social capital (e.g. intense and open network linkages) and entrepreneurial capital (e.g. creative and risk-taking business activities). Kourtit and Nijkamp (2012) Smart cities have high productivity as they have a relatively high share of highly educated people, knowledge-intensive jobs, output-oriented planning systems, creative activities and sustainability-oriented initiatives. Kourtit et al. (2012) Smart city [refers to] a local entity - a district, city, region or small country -which takes a holistic approach to employ[ing] information technologies with real-time analysis that encourages sustainable economic development. IDA (2012) A community of average technology size, interconnected and sustainable, comfortable, attractive and secure. Lazaroiu and Roscia (2012) The application of information and communications technology (ICT) with their effects on human capital/education, social and relational capital, and environmental issues is often indicated by the notion of smart city. Lombardi et al. (2012) A smart city infuses information into its physical infrastructure to improve conveniences, facilitate mobility, add efficiencies, conserve energy, improve the quality of air and water, identify problems and fix them quickly, recover rapidly from disasters, collect data to make better decisions, deploy resources effectively, and share data to enable collaboration across entities and domains. Nam and Pardo (2011) Creative or smart city experiments [ ... ] aimed at nurturing a creative economy through investment in quality of life which in turn attracts knowledge workers to live and work in smart cities. The nexus of competitive advantage has [ ... ] shifted to those regions that can generate, retain, and attract the best talent. Thite (2011) Smart cities of the future will need sustainable urban development policies where all residents, including the poor, can live well and the attraction of the towns and cities is preserved. [ ... ] Smart cities are cities that have a high quality of life; those that pursue sustainable economic development through investments in human and social capital, and traditional and modern communications infrastructure (transport and information communication technology); and manage natural resources through participatory policies. Smart cities should also be sustainable, converging economic, social, and environmental goals. Thuzar (2011) A smart city is understood as a certain intellectual ability that addresses several innovative socio-technical and socio-economic aspects of growth. These aspects lead to smart city conceptions as “green” referring to urban infrastructure for environment protection and reduction of CO2 emission, “interconnected” related to revolution of broadband economy, “intelligent” declaring the capacity to produce added value information from the processing of city’s real-time data from sensors and activators, whereas the terms “innovating”, “knowledge” cities interchangeably refer to the city’s ability to raise innovation based on knowledgeable and creative human capital. Zygiaris (2013) (Continued) Smart Cities: Definitions, Dimensions, Performance, and Initiatives 7 Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017
8 Journal of Urban Technology Table 1:Continued Definition Source The use of Smart Computing technologies to make the critical infrastructure Washburn et al.(2010) components and services of a city-which include city administration, education,healthcare,public safety,real estate,transportation,and utilities-more intelligent,interconnected,and efficient. Smart Cities initiatives try to improve urban performance by using data, Marsal-Llacuna et al. information and information technologies(IT)to provide more efficient (2014) services to citizens,to monitor and optimize existing infrastructure,to increase collaboration among different economic actors,and to encourage innovative business models in both the private and public sectors. LIO isnany For corporations such as IBM,Cisco Systems,and Siemens AG,the techno- logical component is the key component to their conceptions of smart cities. Their approach has recently been critiqued by authors such as Adam Greenfield who argues in Against the Smart City(2013)that corporate-designed cities such A as Songdo (Korea),Masdar City (UAE),or PlanIT Valley (Portugal)eschew k:101 actual knowledge about how cities function and represent "empty"spaces that disregard the value of complexity,unplanned scenarios,and the mixed uses of urban spaces.There are authors,however,who have shown that technology [AISIAlun could be used in cities to empower citizens by adapting those technologies to their needs rather than adapting their lives to technological exigencies(Cugurullo, 2013,Kitchin,2014,Vanolo,2014). There are terms analogous to "smart cities"that add to the cacophony of terms relating to this phenomenon.As already stated,possible confusion uoloelf eyueyS] related to the technology perspective of a smart city comes from the top-down and company-driven actions taken for creating a smart city.However,it also comes from the confusion with other similar terms,such as digital,intelligent, virtual,or ubiquitous city.These terms refer to more specific and less inclusive levels of a city,so that the concepts of smart cities often include them(Caragliu et al.,2011;Deakin and Al Waer,2011;Townsend,2013).For example a digital city refers to"a connected community that combines broadband communications 花o P infrastructure to meet the needs of governments,citizens,and businesses" (Ishida,2002).The final goal of a digital city is to create an environment for infor- mation sharing,collaboration,interoperability,and seamless experiences anywhere in the city. The notion of the"intelligent city"emerges at the crossing of the knowledge society with the digital city(Yovanof and Hazapis,2009).According to Komninos et al.(2013),intelligent cities make conscious efforts to use information technology to transform life and work.The label intelligent implies the ability to support learning,technological development,and innovation in cities;in this sense, every digital city is not necessarily intelligent,but every intelligent city has digital components,although the "people"component is still not included in an intelligent city,as it is in a smart city (Woods,2013).In a "virtual city,"the city becomes a hybrid concept that consists of a reality,with its physical entities and real inhabitants,and a parallel virtual city of counterparts,a cyberspace.A "ubiquitous city"is an extension of the digital city concept in terms of wide acces- sibility.It makes the ubiquitous computing available to the urban elements every- where(Greenfield,2006;Townsend,2013).Its characteristic is the creation of an
For corporations such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Siemens AG, the technological component is the key component to their conceptions of smart cities. Their approach has recently been critiqued by authors such as Adam Greenfield who argues in Against the Smart City (2013) that corporate-designed cities such as Songdo (Korea), Masdar City (UAE), or PlanIT Valley (Portugal) eschew actual knowledge about how cities function and represent “empty” spaces that disregard the value of complexity, unplanned scenarios, and the mixed uses of urban spaces. There are authors, however, who have shown that technology could be used in cities to empower citizens by adapting those technologies to their needs rather than adapting their lives to technological exigencies (Cugurullo, 2013, Kitchin, 2014, Vanolo, 2014). There are terms analogous to “smart cities” that add to the cacophony of terms relating to this phenomenon. As already stated, possible confusion related to the technology perspective of a smart city comes from the top-down and company-driven actions taken for creating a smart city. However, it also comes from the confusion with other similar terms, such as digital, intelligent, virtual, or ubiquitous city. These terms refer to more specific and less inclusive levels of a city, so that the concepts of smart cities often include them (Caragliu et al., 2011; Deakin and Al Waer, 2011; Townsend, 2013). For example a digital city refers to “a connected community that combines broadband communications infrastructure to meet the needs of governments, citizens, and businesses” (Ishida, 2002). The final goal of a digital city is to create an environment for information sharing, collaboration, interoperability, and seamless experiences anywhere in the city. The notion of the “intelligent city” emerges at the crossing of the knowledge society with the digital city (Yovanof and Hazapis, 2009). According to Komninos et al. (2013), intelligent cities make conscious efforts to use information technology to transform life and work. The label intelligent implies the ability to support learning, technological development, and innovation in cities; in this sense, every digital city is not necessarily intelligent, but every intelligent city has digital components, although the “people” component is still not included in an intelligent city, as it is in a smart city (Woods, 2013). In a “virtual city,” the city becomes a hybrid concept that consists of a reality, with its physical entities and real inhabitants, and a parallel virtual city of counterparts, a cyberspace. A “ubiquitous city” is an extension of the digital city concept in terms of wide accessibility. It makes the ubiquitous computing available to the urban elements everywhere (Greenfield, 2006; Townsend, 2013). Its characteristic is the creation of an Table 1: Continued Definition Source The use of Smart Computing technologies to make the critical infrastructure components and services of a city—which include city administration, education, healthcare, public safety, real estate, transportation, and utilities—more intelligent, interconnected, and efficient. Washburn et al. (2010) Smart Cities initiatives try to improve urban performance by using data, information and information technologies (IT) to provide more efficient services to citizens, to monitor and optimize existing infrastructure, to increase collaboration among different economic actors, and to encourage innovative business models in both the private and public sectors. Marsal-Llacuna et al. (2014) 8 Journal of Urban Technology Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017