-The life of Herakles- the other hand from the praxeis or deeds,the major exploits that he performed of his own accord without orders from another.Artificial though it may have been, this scheme proved most convenient in enabling the mythographers to bring some sort of order into the mass of Herakleian myth.Legends that were located in areas associated with the labours could be bracketed with the appropriate labour as parerga, even if they had no original connection with them;and the other main deeds of the hero (apart from one or two youthful deeds set in Boeotia)could be relegated to the period after his labours as his various praxeis.We will now follow the labours with their associated parerga before passing on to the other adventures that were relegated in this way to the latter part of Herakles'life. While performing his labours,Herakles received his orders from Eurystheus at Mycenae but lived elsewhere,basing himself at the ancient citadel of Tiryns to the south.He was accompanied to the Argolid by his nephew lolaos,who assisted him in his labours as his charioteer,and also his half-brother Iphikles;but Megara remained at Thebes until Herakles visited her after his labours to settle his marital affairs (see p.272). Convenient summaries of the labours are provided by Diodorus and Apollodorus.40 In the following account,we will consider them in the order in which they are narrated by Diodorus,although other lists or narratives show some slight variation in this respect;in particular,Herakles'journey to the Underworld to fetch Kerberos, which could certainly be regarded as his most daunting enterprise,was sometimes classed as his final labour rather than as his penultimate labour as below.The labours fall neatly into two groups of six,for the first six are set in the northern Peloponnese no great distance from Mycenae,while the final six take the hero further abroad, initially to Crete,Thrace and Asia Minor,and ultimately to the edges of the earth and the world below. According to a tradition mentioned by Apollodorus alone,the priestess at Delphi originally told the hero that he would have to perform ten labours over twelve years,but he was obliged to perform twelve labours in the end because Eurystheus refused to acknowledge two of them,objecting that Iolaos had helped him to kill the hydra(see below)and that he had sought a fee from Augeias for clearing the Augeian stables.41 Amphitryon was usually thought to have died before the time of Herakles'labours;Apollo- dorus states that he was killed while fighting bravely alongside Herakles in the war against Orchomenos.42 He was sometimes introduced into the story of Herakles'madness,however, as in the local tradition mentioned above in which he was saved by Athena,or in Euripides' surviving play on the matter(in which he came under threat from Lykos along with Herakles' wife and children).45 Only a single exploit is recorded for him from his latter years at Thebes, his defeat of Chalkodon of Euboea(see p.520),who was killed by him in a battle near Thebes when he tried to exact a tribute from the Thebans.44 Alkmene was sometimes said to have married the Cretan hero Rhadamanthys after Amphi- tryon's death (see p.352);she lived to a great age,surviving to share the troubles of the Heraklids after her son's death(see p.287).As for her brother Likymnios,when he had accom- panied her to Thebes,he married Amphitryon's sister Perimede,who bore him three sons, first Oionos,whose subsequent murder would cause Herakles to conduct a campaign against Sparta (see p.279),and then Argeias and Melas,who would be killed during Herakles'final campaign (see p.283).The only significant tale recorded for Likymnios himself is the story of his death (see p.293). 255
the other hand from the praxeis or deeds, the major exploits that he performed of his own accord without orders from another. Artificial though it may have been, this scheme proved most convenient in enabling the mythographers to bring some sort of order into the mass of Herakleian myth. Legends that were located in areas associated with the labours could be bracketed with the appropriate labour as parerga, even if they had no original connection with them; and the other main deeds of the hero (apart from one or two youthful deeds set in Boeotia) could be relegated to the period after his labours as his various praxeis. We will now follow the labours with their associated parerga before passing on to the other adventures that were relegated in this way to the latter part of Herakles’ life. While performing his labours, Herakles received his orders from Eurystheus at Mycenae but lived elsewhere, basing himself at the ancient citadel of Tiryns to the south. He was accompanied to the Argolid by his nephew Iolaos, who assisted him in his labours as his charioteer, and also his half-brother Iphikles; but Megara remained at Thebes until Herakles visited her after his labours to settle his marital affairs (see p. 272). Convenient summaries of the labours are provided by Diodorus and Apollodorus.40 In the following account, we will consider them in the order in which they are narrated by Diodorus, although other lists or narratives show some slight variation in this respect; in particular, Herakles’ journey to the Underworld to fetch Kerberos, which could certainly be regarded as his most daunting enterprise, was sometimes classed as his final labour rather than as his penultimate labour as below. The labours fall neatly into two groups of six, for the first six are set in the northern Peloponnese no great distance from Mycenae, while the final six take the hero further abroad, initially to Crete, Thrace and Asia Minor, and ultimately to the edges of the earth and the world below. According to a tradition mentioned by Apollodorus alone, the priestess at Delphi originally told the hero that he would have to perform ten labours over twelve years, but he was obliged to perform twelve labours in the end because Eurystheus refused to acknowledge two of them, objecting that Iolaos had helped him to kill the hydra (see below) and that he had sought a fee from Augeias for clearing the Augeian stables.41 Amphitryon was usually thought to have died before the time of Herakles’ labours; Apollodorus states that he was killed while fighting bravely alongside Herakles in the war against Orchomenos.42 He was sometimes introduced into the story of Herakles’ madness, however, as in the local tradition mentioned above in which he was saved by Athena, or in Euripides’ surviving play on the matter (in which he came under threat from Lykos along with Herakles’ wife and children).43 Only a single exploit is recorded for him from his latter years at Thebes, his defeat of Chalkodon of Euboea (see p. 520), who was killed by him in a battle near Thebes when he tried to exact a tribute from the Thebans.44 Alkmene was sometimes said to have married the Cretan hero Rhadamanthys after Amphitryon’s death (see p. 352); she lived to a great age, surviving to share the troubles of the Heraklids after her son’s death (see p. 287). As for her brother Likymnios, when he had accompanied her to Thebes, he married Amphitryon’s sister Perimede, who bore him three sons, first Oionos, whose subsequent murder would cause Herakles to conduct a campaign against Sparta (see p. 279), and then Argeias and Melas, who would be killed during Herakles’ final campaign (see p. 283). The only significant tale recorded for Likymnios himself is the story of his death (see p. 293). 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11110 11 12 13 14 11115 16 17 18 19 11120 21 22 23 24 25111 26 27 28 29 11130 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 11140 41 42 43 44 45 11146 — The life of Herakles — 255
-The life of Herakles- First labour:the Nemean Lion As his first labour,Herakles was ordered to kill the monstrous Nemean lion that lived in the mountains near Nemea in the north-western corner of the Argolid. According to Hesiod,it was the offspring of Orthos and Chimaira (or possibly Echidna,see p.63),and was reared by Hera,who caused it to roam the hills of Nemea,evidently with the intention of providing an ordeal for Herakles.45 Or in another tradition,it was a child of the moon-goddess Selene (or was at least born on the moon),and lived on the moon until Selene cast it down to the earth with a fearsome shudder at the request of Hera.6 It was especially formidable because it was invulnerable(except perhaps in the earliest tradition,for images from the visual arts suggest that there may once have been a version in which it could be killed with a sword).Although Herakles soon discovered that its hide was impenetrable to his arrows and sword,he was able to use his club and indeed his bare hands to greater advantage.In the standard later version,he struck fear into it by threat- ening it with his club,causing it to flee back to its lair,a two-mouthed cave on Mt Tretos (Perforated Mountain)near Nemea;and he then blocked up one mouth of the cave before entering through the other to seize it by its neck and strangle it.47 Or in another account,he stunned the lion by battering it with his club at their first meeting,and then strangled it in the open air.48 Figure 8.2 Herakles strangles the Nemean lion.Attic amphora,circle of Exekias. Staatliche Antikensammlungen,Kassel. 256
First labour: the Nemean Lion As his first labour, Herakles was ordered to kill the monstrous Nemean lion that lived in the mountains near Nemea in the north-western corner of the Argolid. According to Hesiod, it was the offspring of Orthos and Chimaira (or possibly Echidna, see p. 63), and was reared by Hera, who caused it to roam the hills of Nemea, evidently with the intention of providing an ordeal for Herakles.45 Or in another tradition, it was a child of the moon-goddess Selene (or was at least born on the moon), and lived on the moon until Selene cast it down to the earth with a fearsome shudder at the request of Hera.46 It was especially formidable because it was invulnerable (except perhaps in the earliest tradition, for images from the visual arts suggest that there may once have been a version in which it could be killed with a sword). Although Herakles soon discovered that its hide was impenetrable to his arrows and sword, he was able to use his club and indeed his bare hands to greater advantage. In the standard later version, he struck fear into it by threatening it with his club, causing it to flee back to its lair, a two-mouthed cave on Mt Tretos (Perforated Mountain) near Nemea; and he then blocked up one mouth of the cave before entering through the other to seize it by its neck and strangle it.47 Or in another account, he stunned the lion by battering it with his club at their first meeting, and then strangled it in the open air.48 — The life of Herakles — 256 Figure 8.2 Herakles strangles the Nemean lion. Attic amphora, circle of Exekias. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Kassel
-The life of Herakles- After killing the lion,Herakles stripped it of its hide to provide himself with his familiar costume,which offered him excellent protection because it was impenetrable to any weapon.According to Theocritus,he was at a loss as to how he could cut it until some god inspired him with the thought that it might at least be pene- trable to the lion's own claws.49 Although Apollodorus states that he was merely ordered to fetch the animal's skin,he is usually said to have carried the lion itself to Eurystheus as proof of its death(as Apollodorus indeed describes him as doing later in his own narrative).30 Eurystheus was so alarmed by the sight of it that he refused to allow Herakles into Mycenae from that time onwards,telling him to exhibit his trophies at the city gates.For further security,the cowardly king ordered that a bronze jar should be buried in the earth for him to hide in when Herakles arrived with his more fearsome trophies,such as Kerberos or the Erymanthian boar; and he issued his orders through an intermediary henceforth,the herald Kopreus (Dung-man),who is already mentioned in this connection in the Iliad.51 In the earliest tradition,Herakles wore metallic armour like any other warrior.He is first shown wearing a lionskin in works of art dating from the latter part of the seventh century BC,and it is not until the second half of the sixth century that the lionskin becomes his standard form of dress in Attic vase-painting.52 Pindar and Bacchylides in the following century are the first authors to indicate that the hide was impenetrable.33 By looking out through the jaw-space,the hero could use the beast's scalp as a sort of helmet.Apollodorus alone suggests that he cut his lionskin from the lion of Kithairon (see p.251).4 Herakles was said to have cut his club from a wild olive-tree at Nemea or on the east coast of the Argolid before setting out against the lion;s5 or according to Theocritus,he acquired it on Mt Helikon in Boeotia by pulling up an entire olive-tree.56 We hear else- where of a bronze or bronze-tipped club;this may have been the club that he was said to have received from Hephaistos.7 His more conventional arms and armour were presented to him by various gods as a rewards for his prowess,either after he first demonstrated it by defeating the Orchomenians or after he completed the first five of his labours;according to Apollodorus,Hermes gave him a sword,Apollo a bow and arrow,Hephaistos a golden cuirass,and Athena a mantle.58 Before confronting the Nemean lion,Herakles called in at Kleonai,a town not far from Nemea,and stayed with a poor labourer called MOLORCHOS,whose son had been killed by the lion.Molorchos wanted to sacrifice a ram in honour of his guest,but Herakles told him to wait for thirty days and then make a sacrifice,offering it to Zeus the Saviour if he had returned safely from the hunt or else to himself as a hero if he were killed during the hunt.Gods and dead heroes were both honoured in Greek cult,the latter with distinctive chthonic rites.After pursuing the lion for twenty-eight days,Herakles killed it on the twenty- ninth day,but promptly fell asleep from exhaustion;on awakening,he hoisted the lion onto his shoulders and hurried back with it to Molorchos,hastily plucking some wild parsley (selinon)to make a crown for the sacrifice.He arrived back just in time to prevent Molorchos from making the sacrifice to him as a dead hero.Before departing on his way,Herakles re- organized the Nemean Games (which had been founded by Adrastos and the Seven,see p.318)as a festival in honour of Zeus;it was claimed that the victors were awarded a crown of wild parsley because the hero had worn one at the above-mentioned sacrifice to Zeus.A version of this tale was recounted by Callimachus,who is the earliest author who is known to have mentioned it.39 In astral mythology,Hera was said to have rewarded the lion by transferring it to the heavens to become the constellation of the Lion (Leo).60 257
After killing the lion, Herakles stripped it of its hide to provide himself with his familiar costume, which offered him excellent protection because it was impenetrable to any weapon. According to Theocritus, he was at a loss as to how he could cut it until some god inspired him with the thought that it might at least be penetrable to the lion’s own claws.49 Although Apollodorus states that he was merely ordered to fetch the animal’s skin, he is usually said to have carried the lion itself to Eurystheus as proof of its death (as Apollodorus indeed describes him as doing later in his own narrative).50 Eurystheus was so alarmed by the sight of it that he refused to allow Herakles into Mycenae from that time onwards, telling him to exhibit his trophies at the city gates. For further security, the cowardly king ordered that a bronze jar should be buried in the earth for him to hide in when Herakles arrived with his more fearsome trophies, such as Kerberos or the Erymanthian boar; and he issued his orders through an intermediary henceforth, the herald Kopreus (Dung-man), who is already mentioned in this connection in the Iliad. 51 In the earliest tradition, Herakles wore metallic armour like any other warrior. He is first shown wearing a lionskin in works of art dating from the latter part of the seventh century BC, and it is not until the second half of the sixth century that the lionskin becomes his standard form of dress in Attic vase-painting.52 Pindar and Bacchylides in the following century are the first authors to indicate that the hide was impenetrable.53 By looking out through the jaw-space, the hero could use the beast’s scalp as a sort of helmet. Apollodorus alone suggests that he cut his lionskin from the lion of Kithairon (see p. 251).54 Herakles was said to have cut his club from a wild olive-tree at Nemea or on the east coast of the Argolid before setting out against the lion;55 or according to Theocritus, he acquired it on Mt Helikon in Boeotia by pulling up an entire olive-tree.56 We hear elsewhere of a bronze or bronze-tipped club; this may have been the club that he was said to have received from Hephaistos.57 His more conventional arms and armour were presented to him by various gods as a rewards for his prowess, either after he first demonstrated it by defeating the Orchomenians or after he completed the first five of his labours; according to Apollodorus, Hermes gave him a sword, Apollo a bow and arrow, Hephaistos a golden cuirass, and Athena a mantle.58 Before confronting the Nemean lion, Herakles called in at Kleonai, a town not far from Nemea, and stayed with a poor labourer called MOLORCHOS, whose son had been killed by the lion. Molorchos wanted to sacrifice a ram in honour of his guest, but Herakles told him to wait for thirty days and then make a sacrifice, offering it to Zeus the Saviour if he had returned safely from the hunt or else to himself as a hero if he were killed during the hunt. Gods and dead heroes were both honoured in Greek cult, the latter with distinctive chthonic rites. After pursuing the lion for twenty-eight days, Herakles killed it on the twentyninth day, but promptly fell asleep from exhaustion; on awakening, he hoisted the lion onto his shoulders and hurried back with it to Molorchos, hastily plucking some wild parsley (selinon) to make a crown for the sacrifice. He arrived back just in time to prevent Molorchos from making the sacrifice to him as a dead hero. Before departing on his way, Herakles reorganized the Nemean Games (which had been founded by Adrastos and the Seven, see p. 318) as a festival in honour of Zeus; it was claimed that the victors were awarded a crown of wild parsley because the hero had worn one at the above-mentioned sacrifice to Zeus. A version of this tale was recounted by Callimachus, who is the earliest author who is known to have mentioned it.59 In astral mythology, Hera was said to have rewarded the lion by transferring it to the heavens to become the constellation of the Lion (Leo).60 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11110 11 12 13 14 11115 16 17 18 19 11120 21 22 23 24 25111 26 27 28 29 11130 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 11140 41 42 43 44 45 11146 — The life of Herakles — 257
-The life of Herakles- Second labour:the Lernaian Hydra This was a huge many-headed snake that lived in the swamps of Lerna some miles to the south of Argos.According to the Theogony,it was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna,and it was reared by Hera to become a danger to Herakles;1 although Hesiod offers no description,it is regularly described as many-headed in subsequent accounts and is shown as such in visual images from the eighth century BC onwards. As for the number of its heads,estimates vary from just a few to as many as fifty or a hundred.62 For obvious practical reasons,artists tend to portray it with rela- tively few heads.It was often said to have been exceptionally difficult to kill because as soon as one head was cut off,a new head,or more commonly two,would grow up in its place.63 Hydra,which simply means water-snake,is not a proper name in Greek and does not necessarily carry any connotation of monstrosity. After travelling to Lerna in his chariot with Iolaos,Herakles engaged with this formidable adversary,but soon found himself in difficulties because its heads regrew as quickly as he cut them off (or knocked them off with his club).To make matters worse,Hera provided it with an ally by sending an enormous crab to bite Herakles on the foot.He managed to kill the crab,however,by crushing it underfoot,and now felt that he was justified in calling on the help of lolaos as an ally of his own. So Iolaos prepared some firebrands,and whenever Herakles cut off one of the hydra's heads,he would assist him by cauterizing the stump to prevent a new head (or heads)from growing.After removing its heads in this manner and killing it, Herakles dipped his arrows into its blood or gall,making them so poisonous from that time onward that the merest scratch would prove fatal.According to Apollo- dorus at least,one of its heads (here nine in number)was immortal,and the hero was therefore obliged to bury it under a heavy rock.4 Some said that Herakles called on the help of Iolaos while under joint attack from the hydra and the crab,hence the origin of the proverb 'Even Herakles cannot fight against two65 In astral myth- ology,Hera is said to have honoured the crab by transferring it to the heavens to become the constellation of the Crab(Cancer).66 Third labour:the Erymanthian Boar This is perhaps the least interesting of all the adventures,even if it inspired some memorable images from Attic vase-painters,who liked to show Eurystheus cowering in his bronze jar as Herakles displays the boar to him.This beast,which was neither of divine origin nor gifted with any special powers,lived on Mt Erymanthos in north- western Arcadia and used to venture down to ravage the lands beneath.Having been ordered to capture it alive,Herakles frightened it out of its lair with loud shouts (or well-aimed stones)and chased it into deep snow,where he was able to net it.He then carried it back to Mycenae on his shoulders,which was quite a feat in itself.67 While seeking the boar,he visited the Centaur PHOLOS,who lived in a cave on Mt Pholoe to the south of Mt Erymanthos.Pholos set roast meat before him while eating his own meat raw(an indication of his semi-animal status);but he hesitated to offer any wine to his guest because the wine-jar in his cave belonged to all the Centaurs in common.Herakles insisted nevertheless and opened it up,to the anger 258
Second labour: the Lernaian Hydra This was a huge many-headed snake that lived in the swamps of Lerna some miles to the south of Argos. According to the Theogony, it was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, and it was reared by Hera to become a danger to Herakles;61 although Hesiod offers no description, it is regularly described as many-headed in subsequent accounts and is shown as such in visual images from the eighth century BC onwards. As for the number of its heads, estimates vary from just a few to as many as fifty or a hundred.62 For obvious practical reasons, artists tend to portray it with relatively few heads. It was often said to have been exceptionally difficult to kill because as soon as one head was cut off, a new head, or more commonly two, would grow up in its place.63 Hydra, which simply means water-snake, is not a proper name in Greek and does not necessarily carry any connotation of monstrosity. After travelling to Lerna in his chariot with Iolaos, Herakles engaged with this formidable adversary, but soon found himself in difficulties because its heads regrew as quickly as he cut them off (or knocked them off with his club). To make matters worse, Hera provided it with an ally by sending an enormous crab to bite Herakles on the foot. He managed to kill the crab, however, by crushing it underfoot, and now felt that he was justified in calling on the help of Iolaos as an ally of his own. So Iolaos prepared some firebrands, and whenever Herakles cut off one of the hydra’s heads, he would assist him by cauterizing the stump to prevent a new head (or heads) from growing. After removing its heads in this manner and killing it, Herakles dipped his arrows into its blood or gall, making them so poisonous from that time onward that the merest scratch would prove fatal. According to Apollodorus at least, one of its heads (here nine in number) was immortal, and the hero was therefore obliged to bury it under a heavy rock.64 Some said that Herakles called on the help of Iolaos while under joint attack from the hydra and the crab, hence the origin of the proverb ‘Even Herakles cannot fight against two’.65 In astral mythology, Hera is said to have honoured the crab by transferring it to the heavens to become the constellation of the Crab (Cancer).66 Third labour: the Erymanthian Boar This is perhaps the least interesting of all the adventures, even if it inspired some memorable images from Attic vase-painters, who liked to show Eurystheus cowering in his bronze jar as Herakles displays the boar to him. This beast, which was neither of divine origin nor gifted with any special powers, lived on Mt Erymanthos in northwestern Arcadia and used to venture down to ravage the lands beneath. Having been ordered to capture it alive, Herakles frightened it out of its lair with loud shouts (or well-aimed stones) and chased it into deep snow, where he was able to net it. He then carried it back to Mycenae on his shoulders, which was quite a feat in itself.67 While seeking the boar, he visited the Centaur PHOLOS, who lived in a cave on Mt Pholoe to the south of Mt Erymanthos. Pholos set roast meat before him while eating his own meat raw (an indication of his semi-animal status); but he hesitated to offer any wine to his guest because the wine-jar in his cave belonged to all the Centaurs in common. Herakles insisted nevertheless and opened it up, to the anger — The life of Herakles — 258