real and reactive power flow modifications; (iv)islanding;(v) synchronization during system restoration; (vi)transients; (vii) protection issues;(vii) load following capability; and (ix) dynamic interation with the rest of the system. Since there are very few systems with high penetration of DG, studies based on detailed models should be undertaken to forecast potential problems and arrive at suitable solutions Defining Terms Biomass: General term used for wood, wood wastes, sewage, cultivated herbaceous and other energy crops, nd animal wastes Distributed generation: Small power plants at or near loads and scattered throughout the servic Ice area. uel cell: Device that converts the chemical energy in a fuel directly and isothermally into electrical energy Geothermal energy: Thermal energy in the form of hot water and steam in the earths crust Hydropower: Conversion of potential energy of water into electricity using generators coupled to impulse or reaction water turbines Insolation: Incident solar radiation IRES: Acronym for integrated renewable energy system, a collection of devices that harness several manifes tations of solar energy to supply a variety of energy and other needs Photovoltaics: Conversion of insolation into dc electricity by means of solid state pn junction diodes. Solar-thermal-electric co Collection of solar energy in thermal form using flat-plate or concentrat ng collectors and its conversion to electrical form. Thermionics: Direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy by using the Edison effect( therm hermoelectrics: Direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy using the thermoelectric effects in materials, typically semiconductors Tidal energy: The energy contained in the varying water level in oceans and estuaries, originated by lunar Wind-electric conversion: The generation of electrical energy using electromechanical energy converters driven by aeroturbine Related Topic 22 1 Physical Properties erences .w. Angrist, Direct Energy Conversion, 4th ed, Boston, Mass. Allyn and Bacon, 1982 R. C. Dorf, Energy, Resources, &Policy Reading, Mass. Addison-Wesley, 1978. J. J. Fritz, Small and Mini Hydropower Systems, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984 J. F. Kreider and F. Kreith(eds ) Solar Energy Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981 T Moore, On-site utility applications for photovoltaics, "EPRI J, P. 27, 1991 R. Ramakumar and J E Bigger,Photovoltaic Systems, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol 81, no 3, Pp 365-377, 199 R. Ramakumar, Renewable energy sources and developing countries, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-102, no. 2, Pp. 502-510, 1983 R. Ramakumar, Wind-electric conversion utilizing field modulated generator systems, Solar Energy, voL. 20, no.1,Pp.109117,1978 R. Ramakumar, I. Abouzahr, and K. Ashenayi, A knowledge-based approach to the design of integrated renewable energy systems, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. EC-7, no 4, Pp. 648-659, 1992. R. Ramakumar, H. J. Allison, and W. L. Hughes, " Solar energy conversion and storage systems for the future, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-94, no 6, PP. 1926-1934, 197 R. H. Taylor, Alternative Energy Sources for the Centralised Generation of Electricity, Bristol, U. K: Hilger, 1983 The Potential of Renewable Energy, An interlaboratory white paper, prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo, 1990 e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC (iii) real and reactive power flow modifications; (iv) islanding; (v) synchronization during system restoration; (vi) transients; (vii) protection issues; (viii) load following capability; and (ix) dynamic interation with the rest of the system. Since there are very few systems with high penetration of DG, studies based on detailed models should be undertaken to forecast potential problems and arrive at suitable solutions. Defining Terms Biomass: General term used for wood, wood wastes, sewage, cultivated herbaceous and other energy crops, and animal wastes. Distributed generation: Small power plants at or near loads and scattered throughout the service area. Fuel cell: Device that converts the chemical energy in a fuel directly and isothermally into electrical energy. Geothermal energy: Thermal energy in the form of hot water and steam in the earth’s crust. Hydropower: Conversion of potential energy of water into electricity using generators coupled to impulse or reaction water turbines. Insolation: Incident solar radiation. IRES: Acronym for integrated renewable energy system, a collection of devices that harness several manifestations of solar energy to supply a variety of energy and other needs. Photovoltaics: Conversion of insolation into dc electricity by means of solid state pn junction diodes. Solar-thermal-electric conversion: Collection of solar energy in thermal form using flat-plate or concentrating collectors and its conversion to electrical form. Thermionics: Direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy by using the Edison effect (thermionic emission). Thermoelectrics: Direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy using the thermoelectric effects in materials, typically semiconductors. Tidal energy: The energy contained in the varying water level in oceans and estuaries, originated by lunar gravitational force. Wind-electric conversion: The generation of electrical energy using electromechanical energy converters driven by aeroturbines. Related Topic 22.1 Physical Properties References S.W. Angrist, Direct Energy Conversion, 4th ed., Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1982. R. C. Dorf, Energy, Resources, & Policy, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1978. J. J. Fritz, Small and Mini Hydropower Systems, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984. J. F. Kreider and F. Kreith (eds.), Solar Energy Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. T. Moore, “On-site utility applications for photovoltaics,” EPRI J., p. 27, 1991. R. Ramakumar and J. E. Bigger, “Photovoltaic Systems,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 365–377, 1993. R. Ramakumar, “Renewable energy sources and developing countries,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-102, no. 2, pp. 502–510, 1983. R. Ramakumar, “Wind-electric conversion utilizing field modulated generator systems,” Solar Energy, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 109–117, 1978. R. Ramakumar, I. Abouzahr, and K. Ashenayi, “A knowledge-based approach to the design of integrated renewable energy systems,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. EC-7, no. 4, pp. 648–659, 1992. R. Ramakumar, H. J. Allison, and W. L. Hughes, “Solar energy conversion and storage systems for the future,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-94, no. 6, pp. 1926–1934, 1975. R. H. Taylor, Alternative Energy Sources for the Centralised Generation of Electricity, Bristol, U.K.: Hilger, 1983. The Potential of Renewable Energy, An interlaboratory white paper, prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., 1990
NIAGARA FALLS ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY SHOWPLACE t the close of the 19th century, Niagara Falls, New York, represented a showplace for displaying how far the electrical engineering profession had come in one short decade. Here, electrical ngineers were confronted with one of the great technical challenges of the age -how to harness the enormous power latent in Niagara's thundering waters and make it available for useful work. Years of study and heated debate preceded the start-up of the first Niagara Falls Power Station in the summer of 1895, as engineers and financiers argued about whether electricity could be relied on to transmit large amounts of power the 20 miles to Buffalo and, if so, whether it should be direct or alternating current. The success of the giant polyphase alternating current generators made clear the directions that electric power technology would take in the new century, and the attraction of novel industries that consumed great amounts of electricity, such as aluminum and other electrochemical manufacturers, showed the vast potential for growth and change that electricity held for the future Courtesy of IEEE Center for the History of Electrical Engineering. The discovery of how to use electricity to make aluminum in 1886 gave Niagara Falls its first major consumer of power-the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, known today as the Aluminum Company of America(ALCOA).(Photo ourtesy of IEEE Center for the History of Electrical Engineering e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC NIAGARA FALLS ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY SHOWPLACE t the close of the 19th century, Niagara Falls, New York, represented a showplace for displaying how far the electrical engineering profession had come in one short decade. Here, electrical engineers were confronted with one of the great technical challenges of the age — how to harness the enormous power latent in Niagara’s thundering waters and make it available for useful work. Years of study and heated debate preceded the start-up of the first Niagara Falls Power Station in the summer of 1895, as engineers and financiers argued about whether electricity could be relied on to transmit large amounts of power the 20 miles to Buffalo and, if so, whether it should be direct or alternating current. The success of the giant polyphase alternating current generators made clear the directions that electric power technology would take in the new century, and the attraction of novel industries that consumed great amounts of electricity, such as aluminum and other electrochemical manufacturers, showed the vast potential for growth and change that electricity held for the future. (Courtesy of IEEE Center for the History of Electrical Engineering.) The discovery of how to use electricity to make aluminum in 1886 gave Niagara Falls its first major consumer of power — the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, known today as the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA). (Photo courtesy of IEEE Center for the History of Electrical Engineering.) A