4.2 Extensions of the Basic Performance Model 153 United States)that tend toward a shorter time perspective.In fact,Salamon and Deutsch(2006)propose that in the short term,OCBs are really wasted effort and that workers who engage in them are doing it for distant rewards,such as eventual promo- tions.Thus.while OCBs may appear in many cultures,it is still not clear if they are the norm or the exception. Causes and Correlates of OCB As often happens when a new concept or construct emerges,a good deal of research is beginning to appear related to the antecedents and correlates of OCB.Here are some example家 Hunt(2002)found that in very structured jobs where employees are expected to fol. low formal and rigid rules for job performance(e.g.,steel workers and barge deck. hands).OCB is likely to do as much harm as good.It appears that"initiative"might actually increase the risk of an accident.One can imagine that occupations in other tightly controlled work environments,such as petrochemical operations and nuclear power,will reveal similar results. Gellatly and Irving(2001)found that jobs high in autonomy were more likely to be associated with the appearance of OCB.Further,they discovered that when auton- omy was low,conscientious workers were less likely to display OCB.Data presented by Beaty,Cleveland,and Murphy (2001)further support the notion that the work environment can constrain the appearance of OCB. Witt,Kacmar,Carlson,and Zivnuska(2002)studied the relationship between negative organizational "politics"(e.g..a tendency to agree with superiors for the sake of going along,the role of unpopular but good ideas)and OCB.They discov- ered that the more negative the political environment,the less likely it was the OCB would appear.They also found that individuals high on the agreeableness dimension of the Big Five were likely to display OCB in both positive and negative environments. Borman,Penner,Allen,and Motowidlo (2001)found evidence for a positive rela- tionship between conscientiousness and OCB. Both Heilman and Chen (2005)and Kidder and Parks (2001)suggest that men engaging in OCB are viewed positively,while women displaying the same behavior are seen as simply doing their jobs. This sample of studies illustrates the wide variety of research that has emerged regarding OCB.This research.currently in its infancy,shows promise as a fascinating view of the emerging definition of effective performance and how it can be achieved. There is,of course.an elephant in the room when it comes to OCB.While everyone would generally agree that OCB is a positive addition to the workplace,what happens when organizations expect or require it?At the very least,questions of fairness might arise. Employees may believe they are paid to perform tasks A,B,and C.whereas their employer may believe that in addition to performing those tasks,the employees are also expected to display behaviors D (volunteering).E (following the spirit as well as the letter of company rules),and F(speaking positively about the company).There is no research that illuminates this dilemma yet.But you can be sure that when OCB becomes "required,it will lose some. thing.In addition,if OCB is truly driven by personality characteristics,it may be that selec. tion schemes will need to emphasize these personality attributes to a much greater extent in any selection battery. Scanned by CamScanner
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154 Chapter 4 Job Analysis and Performance The Dark Side of Performance:Counterproductive Work Behaviors Above,we have considered the "sunny side"of performance and productivity:leveraging organizational goals through human attributes that lead to high levels of worker perfor. mance.But there is a dark side to the picture as well.There are constraints to this leveraging Counterproductive werk process,and they can be collected under the heading counterproductive work behavior behavior (CWB)Voluntary (CWB).As was the case with OCB,there has been an explosion of research in CWB (Fox behavior th道en Spector,2005).However,in a fascinating historical review of personality testing in industry. sgnificant erganizatonal noms and threaten指the Gibby and Zickar(2008)document the early (ca.1920)and increasing interest in worker ell-bein时时te "maladjustment."Thus it appears that interest in the "problem"employee is hardly new. 候nan2atoa,的memt Robinson and Bennett (1995)broke counterproductive behavior into two separate or both. aspects:deviance directed toward the organization and deviance directed toward other indi viduals.They defined counterproductive behavior as "voluntary behavior that violates sig. nificant organizational norms and in so doing.threatens the well-being of the organization, its members,or both"(p.556).Rather than contributing to the goals of the organization. these actions run directly counter to those goals.Sackett and colleagues (Sackett,Berry. Weinaman,Laczo,2006;Sackett DeVore,2001)proposed a hierarchical model of coun- terproductive work behavior.This model has a broad factor of counterproductive behavior at the top level,two narrower factors of organizational deviance and interpersonal deviance in the middle level,and individual counterproductive behaviors such as theft,absence,sabo- tage,and substance abuse at the lowest levels(Figure 4.4).Others have suggested alternative models of CWB.Vardi and Weiner(1996)distinguish among three types: S,behavior done for self-gain (e.g.,theft) O,behavior done for organizational gain (e.g.,misstating profit or overbilling) D.behavior that is destructive (e.g.,sabotage,assault) The"O"type of misbehavior gained attention after the Enron,HealthSouth,and similar corporate scandals of the early 2000s.There is little doubt that such misbehavior it would be considered "counterproductive"at both the individual and the organizational levels. A book by Vardi and Weitz(2004)presents extensive coverage of unethical managerial behavior represented in these corporate scandals.Additional examples of"O"behavior can be found in the highly publicized scandals involving financiers such as Bernard Madoff and Allen Stanford in 2008-2009. Theft FIGURE 4.4 Sackett and G0信 Property damo DeVore's Hierarchical Werbal abuse Lan的be Model of Deviance Fightng Sou Based on Sackett& DeVore200月 Scanned by CamScanner
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4.2 Extensions of the Basic Performance Model 155 Let's consider three common counterproductive behaviors:dishonesty,absenteeism, and sabotage. Dishonesty Employee theft is a major issue in many organizations,particularly retail businesses.In 1993 Murphy estimated that annual losses to American corporations as a result of employee theft fell somewhere between 5 and 50 billion dollars.A recent estimate of the cost of theft at small businesses (Zipkin,2004)places that value at almost $130,000 per year,often perpetrated by bookkeepers and those with access to the company's assets.This may be a conservative estimate,as recorded theft is generally assumed to underestimate actual theft figures.Dishonesty involves more than employee theft of goods.It can also involve 所honest灯y Employee theft theft of time (arriving late,leaving early.taking unnecessary sick days)or dishonest 时pnh的耐heft of time communications with customers,co-workers,or management.Each of these behaviors 加的g城e.leaving ear水 lowers productivity by raising the cost of production,lowering output,or both.There is takng unnecessary sid days some research suggesting that theft,at least in part,may be precipitated by feelings of thcustomers,co-workers inequity and perceived violations of principles of justice(Baron,2004:Neuman Baron. or management 2005).Organizations typically attempt to control dishonesty through the modification of attitudes toward the organization,as we will discuss in Chapter 9;they also seek to screen it out by using selection batteries that include integrity and/or conscientiousness assessments(Chapter 3). Absenteeism Employers lose money with every employee absence,for an absent employee cannot be a productive employee.Although absence for reasons of illness or injury is,of course,rec- ognized as legitimate,many employers strive to minimize these kinds of absences through stress reduction(Chapter 10)or increases in workplace safety(Chapters 10 and 14).The type of absenteeism that most attracts the interest of I-O psychologists,however,is Absenteeism Type of "avoidable"absence:those occasions when an employee decides to stay away from work behavio for reasons other than illness or injury.Nicholson and his colleagues(Chadwick-Jones, nvh格failure of an Nicholson,Brown,1982;Nicholson,Brown,Chadwick-Jones,1976)suggested that employee to report for or 际1m其2k药 absenteeism is really a function of an informal agreement between a worker and a super- sheddled visor or a worker's estimate of what is permitted by the organization.In Chapter 9,we will address the issue of absenteeism through the concepts of commitment and job dissatisfaction. Sabotage Sabotage Acts that 4m9%的np候ubt ega2aom） Employee sabotage can be defined as "the intention to damage,disrupt,or subvert the peration何pensonal organization's operations for personal purposes of the saboteur by creating unfavorable papofthesabote by publicity,damage to property,destruction of working relationships,or harming of teating ufavorable employees or customers"(Crino,1994.p.312).In the early 1970s,at the height of the pobcity,damage to erty.destruction of microassembly movement in automobile production,employers began to require line rking relationsh5时 workers to complete their operations on a moving auto body in 30 seconds or less-a hamming of employe销6t difficult,if not impossible,task.As stress and frustration among the workers grew,acts of cuitomers sabotage increased.Workers intentionally dropped nuts and bolts into the engine or 【erdstewn syndrome Act neglected to anchor parts to the car body appropriately.This became known as the f saotage named after a Lordstown syndrome,named after one General Motors plant particularly plagued with General Motors plan时 these acts of sabotage.Although Chen and Spector (1992)found that high levels of ued with a由o动 sabotage were associated with low levels of satisfaction,this type of acting out clearly Scanned by CamScanner
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